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El Salvador 🖉 edit

Article 13 of the 1824 Constitution of the State of Salvador holds: "The people may not, by themselves, nor by any authority, be deprived of its Sovereignty; and may not exceed to it except in the primary elections, and exercising them according to the law. Furthermore, Salvadorans have the right of petition, and the freedom of [the] press to propose appropriate [utiles] measures, and to censure the conduct of the public functionaries in the exercise of their office [cargo] and to see to compliance with the laws."

Chapter 16, Section 73 of the 1841 Constitution of the State of Salvador reads: "Every citizen and inhabitant may freely express, write, and publish his opinion, without being subject to censorship, and with the sole condition of being answerable for the abuse of that liberty before a jury established by the law."

Today, Article 6 of El Salvador’s 1983 Constitution contains protections for freedom of the press: “Every person may freely express and disseminate his thoughts provided they do not subvert the public order nor injure the moral, honor or private lives of others. The exercise of this right shall not be subject to previous examination, censorship or bond; but those who infringe on the laws [while] making use of this right, shall respond for the offense they commit” (Constitution Project, “El Salvador's Constitution of 1983 with Amendments through 2014” ).

References:

1824 Constitution of the state of Salvador: English Translation of the Spanish Original Text of the Constitution of 1824 3 (1824) Chapter III https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzsv0053&id=4&men_tab=srchresults

1841 Constitution of the State of Salvador: English translation of the Constitution of 1841. 207 (2010) https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzsv0002&id=2&collection=cow&index=

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/El_Salvador_2014.pdf?lang=en

Equatorial Guinea 🖉 edit

Equatorial Guinea’s 1991 Constitution contains no explicit press freedom protections (Constitute Project, “Equatorial Guinea's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Eritrea 🖉 edit

Article 19 of the 1997 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person shall have the freedom of speech and expression, including freedom of the press and other media” (Constitute Project, “Eritrea's Constitution of 1997” ).

Estonia 🖉 edit

Paragraph 13 of Estonia’s 1920 Constitution first outlined protections on press freedom: “In Estonia there is freedom for the expression of personal ideas in words, print, letters, pictures, and sculpture. This freedom can be restricted only in the defense of the State and morals” (Wikisource, “Constitution of the Esthonian Republic ( 1920) ”).

Today, Article 45 of Estonia’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone has the right to freely disseminate ideas, opinions, beliefs and other information by word, print, picture or other means” (Constitute Project, “Estonia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Eswatini 🖉 edit

Article 24 of Eswatini’s 2005 Constitution protects press freedom: “A person shall not except with the free consent of that person be hindered in the enjoyment of the freedom of expression, which includes the freedom of the press and other media” (Constitute Project, “Eswatini's Constitution of 2005” ).

Ethiopia 🖉 edit

Freedom of the press was first protected under Article 41 of Ethiopia’s 1955 Constitution: “Freedom of speech and of the press is guaranteed throughout the Empire in accordance with the law.”

Today, Article 29 of Ethiopia’s 1994 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press and other mass media and freedom of artistic creativity is guaranteed. Freedom of the press shall specifically include the following elements: a. Prohibition of any form of censorship. b. Access to information of public interest.” (Constitute Project, “Ethiopia's Constitution of 1994” ).

Federated States of Micronesia 🖉 edit

Micronesia’s 1975 Constitution contains no explicit protections on press freedom. However, Article IV does protect freedom of expression, assembly, association, and petition (UNESCO, “The Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia”).

Fiji 🖉 edit

Although it did not explicitly protect press freedom, Fiji’s 1970 Constitution did protect, in the course of its guarantee of freedom of expression, “freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference, and freedom from interference with…correspondence” (PacLII, “Fiji Independence Order 1970 and Constitution of Fiji”). Furthermore, the list of potential qualifications or exceptions to this right suggests that freedom of expression was conceived in the 1970 Fiji Constitution as including freedom of the press:

"Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question makes provision - (a) in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality or public health; (b) for the purpose of protecting the reputations, rights or freedoms of other persons or the private lives of persons concerned in legal proceedings, preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, maintaining the authority and independence of the courts, or regulating the technical administration or the technical operation of telephony, telegraphy, posts, wireless broadcasting or television...."

Today, Article 17 of Fiji’s 2013 Constitution explicitly protects press freedom: “Every person has the right to freedom of speech, expression, thought, opinion and publication, which includes… freedom of the press, including print, electronic and other media” (Constitute Project, “Fiji's Constitution of 2013” ).

References:

1970 Constitution of Fiji: https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1970_constitution.pdf

2013 Constitution of Fiji: https://www.laws.gov.fj/Home/information/constitutionoftherepublicoffiji#:~:text=The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Republic,the%20procedures%20in%20the%20Constitution.

Finland 🖉 edit

Section 10 of Finland’s 1919 Constitution Act included the “right to impart, publish and receive information, opinions and other communications without prior hindrance from anyone” as part of its protections on freedom of expression (National Legislative Bodies, “Constitution Act of Finland”).

Today, Section 12 of Finland’s 1999 Constitution protects the “right to express, disseminate and receive information, opinions and other communications without prior prevention by anyone” as part of its protections on freedom of expression (Constitute Project, “Finland's Constitution of 1999 with Amendments through 2011” ).

France 🖉 edit

The importance of press freedom was originally emphasized in Article XI of the 1789 Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen: “The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law” (Yale Law School, “Declaration of the Rights of Man – 1789” ).

This clause is now contained in Article 11 of the France’s 1958 Constitution (Constitute Project, “France's Constitution of 1958 with Amendments through 2008” ).

Gabon 🖉 edit

Article 94 of Gabon’s 1991 Constitution protects press freedom: “Audiovisual and written communication is free in the Gabonese Republic, restricted only by respect of the public order, liberty and dignity of its citizens” (Constitute Project, “Gabon's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Georgia 🖉 edit

Article 23 of Georgia’s 1995 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone shall be free to receive and impart information, to express and disseminate his/her opinion orally, in writing, or otherwise. Mass media shall be free. Censorship shall be inadmissible” (Constitute Project, “Georgia's Constitution of 1995 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Germany 🖉 edit

Article 4 of the "Law Concerning the Basic Rights of the German People," from 27 December 1848, asserted freedom of the press.

Article 118 of the 11 August 1919 Constitution of the German Reich (The Weimar Constitution) guarantees freedom of the press.

Article 5 of Germany’s 1949 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press and freedom of reporting by means of broadcasts and films shall be guaranteed. There shall be no censorship” (Constitute Project, “Germany's Constitution of 1949 with Amendments through 2014” ).

References:

"IV. Fundamental Rights of the German People voted in by the National Assembly in Frankfurt.," IV. Droits Fondementaux du Peuple Allemand votes par l'Assemblee Nationale de Francfort. (1848): 210-211: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzde0172&id=1&collection=cow&index=

The Constitution of the German Reich / August 11, 1919 / Translation of Document 2050-PS / Office of U.S. Chief of Counsel. Courtesy of Cornell University Law Library, Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection. https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/nur01840

Germany 1949 Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/German_Federal_Republic_2014

Ghana 🖉 edit

Ghana’s 1979 Constitution protected the right “to receive and impart ideas and information. without interference, and freedom from interference with his correspondence” (Constitutionnet, “Constitution of the Third Republic of Ghana (Promulgated) Decree, 1979” ).

Today, Article 21 of Ghana’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “freedom of speech and expression, which shall include freedom of the press and other media” (Constitute Project, “Ghana's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 1996” ).

Greece 🖉 edit

Article 14 of Greece’s 1975 Constitution protects press freedom: “The press is free. Censorship and all other preventive measures are prohibited…The seizure of newspapers and other publications before or after circulation is prohibited” (Constitute Project, “Greece's Constitution of 1975 with Amendments through 2008” ).

Grenada 🖉 edit

Article 10 of Grenada’s 1973 Constitution protects the “freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence” as well as the “technical administration or the technical operation of telephony, telegraphy, posts, wireless broadcasting or television” (Constitute Project, “Grenada's Constitution of 1973, Reinstated in 1991, with Amendments through 1992” ).

Guatemala 🖉 edit

Article 175 of Guatemala’s first Constitution, which it ratified as a province in the United Provinces of Central America in 1824, protected press freedom: “The Congress, the Assemblies, or the other authorities may not restrict, in any case or by any pretext, the freedom of thought, that of the word, that of writing and that of the press” (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, “Title X. Guarantees of individual freedom”). [Translated from Spanish]

Today, Article 35 of Guatemala’s 1985 Constitution protects press freedom: “The publications which contain denunciations, criticisms, or accusations [imputaciones] against functionaries or public employees for actions conducted in the performance of their duties[,] do not constitute a crime or a fault…The activity of the means of social communication is of public interest and in no case may they be expropriated. They may not be closed, attached [embargados], interfered with, confiscated, or seized [decomisados], nor may the enterprises, plants, equipment, machinery, and gear [enseres] of the means of communication be interrupted in their functioning, for faults or crimes in the expression of thought. The access to the sources of information is free and no authority may limit this right” (Constitute Project, “Guatemala's Constitution of 1985 with Amendments through 1993” ).

Guinea 🖉 edit

Article 7 of the 1990 Guinean Constitution protected freedom to “express, manifest, disseminate…ideas and opinions through speech, writing and image. He is free to learn and obtain information from sources accessible to all” (WIPO, “Constitution du 23 décembre 1990” ) [Translated from French]

Today, Article 7 of Guinea’s 2010 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of the Press is guaranteed and protected. The creation of an organ of [the] press or of [the] media for political, economical, social, cultural, sports, recreational or scientific information is free” (Constitute Project, “Guinea's Constitution of 2010” ).

Guinea-Bissau 🖉 edit

Article 51 of Guinea-Bissau’s 1984 Constitution protects the right “to inform, look for information and be informed without any hindering or discrimination” (Constitute Project, “Guinea-Bissau's Constitution of 1984 with Amendments through 1996” ).

Guyana 🖉 edit

Article 146 of Guyana’s 1980 Constitution protects “freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference and freedom from interference with his correspondence” (National Legislative Bodies, “Constitution of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana”).

Haiti 🖉 edit

Article 27 of Haiti’s 1843 Constitution was its first to protect press freedom: “Everyone has the right to express their opinions in any matter, to write, print and publish their thoughts” (Digithèque MJP, “Constituion du 30 décembre 1843” ).

Article 28-1 of Haiti’s 1987 Constitution protects press freedom: “Journalists shall freely exercise their profession within the framework of the law. Such exercise may not be subject to any authorization or censorship, except in the case of war” (Constitute Project, “Haiti's Constitution of 1987 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Honduras 🖉 edit

Article 117 of the 1839 Honduran Constitution first protected press freedom: “It will not be possible to restrict in any case or by any pretext, the freedom of thought, of the word, that of writing, or that of the press” (Bufeterosa, “Constitucion de 1839” ). [Translated from Spanish]

Article 72 of the 1982 Honduran Constitution states that “expression of thought shall be free, and be expressed through any means of dissemination, without prior censorship” (Constitute Project, “Honduras's Constitution of 1982 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Hungary 🖉 edit

Hungary first protected press freedom under Article 61 of its 1949 Constitution: “The Republic of Hungary recognizes and respects the freedom of the press” (OHCHR, “Act XX of 1949” ).

Article IX of the 2011 Hungarian Constitution protects press freedom: “Hungary shall recognise and protect the freedom and diversity of the press, and shall ensure the conditions for free dissemination of information necessary for the formation of democratic public opinion” (Constitute Project, “Hungary's Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Iceland 🖉 edit

Iceland’s first press freedom protections came while it was a part of Denmark under Section 77 of the 1849 Danish Constitutional Act (see above).

Today, Freedom of the press is not explicitly protected in Iceland’s 1944 Constitution. However, Article 73’s protections for freedom of expression extend to the press: “Everyone shall be free to express his thoughts, but shall also be liable to answer for them in court. The law may never provide for censorship or other similar limitations to freedom of expression” (Constitute Project, “Iceland's Constitution of 1944 with Amendments through 2013” ).

India 🖉 edit

India’s 1949 Constitution does not explicitly protect press freedom, but it is conventionally understood that Article 19 protections on freedom of expression legally extend to the press (Gaur 1994, p. 429).

Indonesia 🖉 edit

Indonesia’s 1945 Constitution does not formally protect freedom of the press, but does protect freedom of expression (Constitute Project, “Indonesia's Constitution of 1945, Reinstated in 1959, with Amendments through 2002” ). Indonesia Law No. 40 in 1999 outlined explicit protections for press freedom: “the freedom of the press is one of the many embodiments of the sovereignty of the people and is the utmost important element in creating a democratic society, nation and state in order to insure the freedom of expressing ideas and opinions as stated in Article 28 of the Indonesian Constitution of 1945” (Human Rights and Peace for Papua, “Indonesian Law No. 40 in 1999 on Press”).

Iran 🖉 edit

Article 20 of the Supplementary Constitutional Law of 7 October 1907 reads: "All publications, except heretical works containing matter harmful to the religion of Islam, are free, and are exempt from censureship. Whenever anything contrary to the law of the press is found in them, the publisher or author will be punished in accordance with that law. If the author is well known and resident in Persia, the publisher, printer and distributor shall be secured from any action being brought against them."

Today, Article 24 of the 1979 Iranian Constitution discusses protections for press freedom, with some caveats: “Publications and the press have freedom of expression except when it is detrimental to the fundamental principles of Islam or the rights of the public. The details of this exception will be specified by law” (Constitute Project, “Iran (Islamic Republic of)'s Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1989” ).

References:

Wright, Herbert F. Constitutions of the States at War 1914-1918 . Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/stwar0001&id=499&men_tab=srchresults#

“Iran (Islamic Republic of) 1979 (Rev. 1989) Constitution.” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iran_1989.

Iraq 🖉 edit

Article 12 of Iraq’s 1925 Constitution first protected press freedom: “Freedom of expression of opinion, liberty of publication, of meeting together, and of forming and joining associations is guaranteed to all Iraqis within such limits as may be prescribed by law”.

Article 38 of Iraq’s 2005 Constitution protects press freedom: “The State shall guarantee in a way that does not violate public order and morality… Freedom of press, printing, advertisement, media and publication” (Constitute Project, “Iraq's Constitution of 2005” ).

References:

Iraq 1925 Constitution: https://constitution.org/1-Constitution/cons/iraq/iraqiconst19250321.html

“Iraq 2005 Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 19, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iraq_2005.

Israel 🖉 edit

Israel has no formal protections on freedom of the press in their Basic Law and according to Freedom House, “the Knesset consistently refuses to pass legislation that would incorporate it into the Basic Laws.” However, the Israeli Supreme Court has “affirmed that freedom of expression is an essential component of human dignity” and has issued rulings protecting press freedom as a foundational principle of Israel’s Declaration of Independence (Freedom House, “Freedom of the Press 2017 – Israel”).

Italy 🖉 edit

Article 21 of Italy’s 1948 Constitution protects press freedom: “Anyone has the right to freely express their thoughts in speech, writing, or any other form of communication. The press may not be subjected to any authorisation or censorship” (Constitute Project, “Italy's Constitution of 1947 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Ivory Coast 🖉 edit

Ivory Coast’s 1960 Constitution described the facilitation of telecommunication as fundamental, but did not explicitly mention freedom of the press (Présidence de la République de Côte d’Ivoire, “Constitution 1ère Republique”). [Translated from French]

Today, Ivory Coast’s 2016 Constitution contains no explicit mention of freedom of the press, but Article 19 protects the “right to express and disseminate their ideas freely” under their protections of freedom of expression (Constitute Project, “Côte d'Ivoire's Constitution of 2016” ).

Jamaica 🖉 edit

Article 13 of Jamaica’s 1962 Constitution protects press freedom: “The rights and freedoms referred to in subsection (2) are as follows… the right to seek, receive, distribute or disseminate information, opinions and ideas through any media” (Constitute Project, “Jamaica's Constitution of 1962 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Japan 🖉 edit

Article 29 of the 1889 Japan Constitution stated: "Japanese subjects shall within the limits of the law, enjoy the liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meeting and association."

Article 21 of Japan's 1947 Constitution guaranteed freedom of the press as well: "Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed."

References:

1889 Japan Constitution: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Japan_1889

1946 Japan Constitution: https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html

Jordan 🖉 edit

Article 15 of Jordan’s 1952 Constitution guarantees freedom of the press: “Freedom of the press and publications shall be ensured within the limits of the law” (Refworld, “The Constitution of The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan”).

Kazakhstan 🖉 edit

Article 10 of the 1993 Kazakhstan Constitution asserts freedom of expression in general. Article 11 bears more directly on freedom of the press: "A citizen of the Republic shall have the right to receive and disseminate any information through any legitimate way for his choice."

References:

"The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan," International Legal Perspectives 5, no. 1 (1993): 111

Kenya 🖉 edit

In the 1963 Constitution freedom of the press can be inferred from Article 23(1): "Except with his own consent, no. person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, that is to say, freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence."

Article 34 of the 2010 Kenyan Constitution explicitly guarantees freedom of the media: “Freedom and independence of electronic, print and all other types of media is guaranteed…” (Constitute Project, “Kenya's Constitution of 2010” ).

References:

1963 Constitution of Kenya: http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/1963_Constitution.pdf

2010 Constitution of Kenya: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Kenya_2010

Kingdom of the Netherlands 🖉 edit

Article 7 of the 1814 Dutch Constitution protects press freedom: “No one shall require prior permission to publish thoughts or opinions through the press, without prejudice to the responsibility of every person under the law" (Constitute Project, “ Kingdom of the Netherland's Constitution of 1814 with Amendments through 2008” ).

Kiribati 🖉 edit

Kiribati’s 1979 Constitution contains no explicit press freedom protections, but Article 12’s freedom of expression protections extend “freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference and freedom from interference with his correspondence” (Constitute Project, “Kiribati's Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Kuwait 🖉 edit

Article 37 of the Kuwait’s 1962 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press and of publication is guaranteed, subject to the conditions and stipulations prescribed by Law” (Constitute Project, “Kuwait's Constitution of 1962, Reinstated in 1992” ).

Kyrgyzstan 🖉 edit

Article 16.2 of the 1993 Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic as amended in February 1996 asserts that all persons in the country shall enjoy "freedom of the press, transmission and dissemination of information".

References:

1993 Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic as amended in February 1996: http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/kyrgyzrepublic-constitution.html

Laos 🖉 edit

Articles 44 and 45 of the 1991 Laos Constitution do not explicitly protect press freedom, but imply a protection of media production through freedom of expression: “Lao citizens have the right and freedom of speech, press and assembly; and have the right to set up associations and to stage demonstrations which are not contrary to the laws… Lao citizens have the right and freedom to conduct studies in and to apply advanced sciences, techniques and technologies; to create artistic and literary works [;] and to engage in cultural activities which are not contrary to the laws” (Constitute Project, “Lao People's Democratic Republic's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2003” ).

Latvia 🖉 edit

Article 100 of Latvia’s 1922 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the right to freely receive, keep and distribute information and to express his or her views. Censorship is prohibited" (Constitute Project, “Latvia’s Constitution of 1992, reinstated in 1991, with Amendments through 2016” ).

Lebanon 🖉 edit

Article 13 of Lebanon’s 1926 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of opinion, expression through speech and writing, the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, and the freedom of association, are all guaranteed within the scope of the law" (Constitute Project, Lebanon’s Constitution of 1926 with Amendments through 2004” ).

Lesotho 🖉 edit

The 1966 Constitution of Lesotho offers a general freedom of expression. Article 14 of Lesotho’s 1993 Constitution states: “Every person shall be entitled to, and (except with his own consent) shall not be hindered in his enjoyment of, freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence." (Constitute Project, “Lesotho’ Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2018” ).

References:

1966 Lesotho Constitution: O’LEARY, B. L. “THE CONSTITUTION OF LESOTHO: AN OUTLINE.” The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 1, no. 2 (1968): 266–70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23240737.

1993 Lesotho Constitution:https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Lesotho_2018.

Liberia 🖉 edit

Article 15 of Liberia’s 1847 Constitution first protected press freedom: “The liberty of the press is essential to the security of freedom in a state; it ought not, therefore, to be restrained in this republic…” (Constitution Review Committee, “Constitutional Convention of 1847) .

Today, Article 15 of Liberia’s 1986 Constitution protects press freedom: “The right encompasses the right to hold opinions without interference and the right to knowledge. It includes freedom of speech and of the press, academic freedom to receive and impart knowledge and information and the right of libraries to make such knowledge available" (Constitute Project, "Liberia’s Constitution of 1986” ).

Libya 🖉 edit

Article 23 of Libya’s 1951 Constitution originally protected press freedom: “Freedom of press and of printing shall be guaranteed within the limits of the law" (Constitutionnet, “Libya’s Constitution”).

Today, Article 14 of Libya’s 2011 Constitution protects press freedom: “The State shall guarantee freedom of opinion, individual and collective expression, research, communication, press, media, printing and editing, movement, assembly, demonstration and peaceful sit-in in accordance with the statute" (Constitute Project, Libya’s Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Liechtenstein 🖉 edit

Article 8 of Liechtenstein’s 1826 Constitution first mentioned press freedom: “Freedom of communicating thought through the press shall be regulated by a special law.” (The Constitutions of States at War 1919, p. 376).

Article 40 of Liechtenstein’s 1921 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person shall be entitled to freely express his opinion and to communicate his ideas by word of mouth or in writing, print or pictures within the limits of the law and morality; no censorship may be exercised except in respect of public performances and exhibitions" (Constitute Project, “Liechtenstein’s Constitution of 1921 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Lithuania 🖉 edit

Lithuania’s 1918 Constitution “guaranteed freedom of speech and the press, religion and conscience” (Vardys 1979, p. 321).

Today, Article 44 of the 1992 Lithuanian Constitution protects press freedom: “Censorship of mass information shall be prohibited. The State, political parties, political and public organization, and other institutions or persons may not monopolise the mass media" (Constitute Project, “Lithuania’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019” ).

Luxembourg 🖉 edit

Article 24 of Luxembourg’s 1868 Constitution protects freedom of press: “The freedom to manifest one's opinion by speech in all matters, and the freedom of the press are guaranteed, save the repression of offenses committed on the occasion of the exercise of these freedoms. - Censorship may never be established" (Constitute Project, “Luxembourg’s Constitution of 1868 with Amendments through 2009” ).

Madagascar 🖉 edit

Article 10 of Madagascar’s 2010 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedoms of opinion and of expression, of communication, of the press, of association, of assembly, of circulation, of conscience and of religion are guaranteed to all and may only be limited by the respect for the freedoms and rights of others, and by the imperative of safeguarding the public order, the national dignity and the security of the State" (Constitute Project, “Madagascar's Constitution of 2010 ”).

Malawi 🖉 edit

Article 20(1) of the 1964 Malawi Constitution referred to freedom of expression generally, and specified the"freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication to be the public generally or to any person or class of persons.)"

Article 36 of Malawi’s 1994 Constitution protects press freedom: “The press shall have the right to report and publish freely, within Malawi and abroad, and to be accorded the fullest possible facilities for access to public information" (Constitute Project, “Malawi’s Constitution of 1994” ).

References:

“Constitution of Malawi.” Citizenship Rights Africa. http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Malawi-Constitution-1964.pdf

1994 Malawi Constitution: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/mlw136089.pdf

Malaysia 🖉 edit

According to Reporters Without Borders, "Press freedom is theoretically guaranteed by article 10 of the constitution, which provides for the freedom of expression." However, Malaysia’s Constitution contains no explicit protections on press freedom.

References:

1957 Malaysia Constitution: http://www.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.html Malaysia's Constitution of 1957 with Amendments through 2007: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007.pdf

Maldives 🖉 edit

Articles 13 and 14 of the 1969 Constitution of the Republic of Maldives as Amended to 1975 are relevant to freedom of the press. Article 13 describes the right to freedom of expression: "Every person has freedom of speech and expression of thought, orally and in writing, so long as the express provisions of Shariath and the law are not contravened." Article 14 is also relevant to freedom of the press: "There exists freedom of acquiring knowledge and imparting it to others in a manner that does not contravene Shariath or law."

Article 28 of Maldives’ 2008 Constitution offers a more direct defense of freedom of the press: “Everyone has the right to freedom of the press, and other means of communication, including the right to espouse, disseminate and publish news, information, views and ideas. No person shall be compelled to disclose the source of any information that is espoused, disseminated or published by that person" (Constitute Project, “Maldives’s Constitution of 2008” ).

References:

1969 Constitution of the Republic of Maldives As Amended to 1975: Peaslee Amos J.; Xydis, Dorothy Peaslee. Constitutions of Nation. The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff.: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/ctituson0002&id=723#

2008 Maldives Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Maldives_2008

Mali 🖉 edit

Article 7 of Mali’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press shall be recognized and guaranteed. It shall be exercised within conditions determined by law. Equal access for all to the State media shall be assured by an independent organ who's regulations shall be established by an organic law" (Constitute Project, “Mali’s Constitution of 1992” ).

Malta 🖉 edit

Article 41 of Malta’s 1964 Constitution protects press freedom as a subset of freedom of expression: “Except with his own consent or by way of parental discipline, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference" (Constitute Project, “Malta’s Constitution of 1964 with Amendments through 2016” ).

Marshall Islands 🖉 edit

Article II, Section 1 of the Marshall Islands’ 1979 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and belief; to freedom of speech and of the press; to the free exercise of religion; to freedom of peaceful assembly and association; and to petition the government for a redress of grievances" (Constitute Project, “Marshall Islands’ Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1995” ).

Mauritania 🖉 edit

Mauritania’s 1961 Constitution drew from the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and included press freedom protections (Handloff 1987, p. 126).

Today, however, Mauritania’s 1991 Constitution contains no explicit protections on press freedom (Constitute Project, “Mauritania’s Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Mauritius 🖉 edit

Article 12 of Mauritius’s 1968 Constitution protects press freedom: “Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question makes provision…for the purpose of…regulating the technical administration or the technical operation of telephony, telegraphy, posts, wireless broadcasting, television, public exhibitions or public entertainments" (Constitute Project, “Mauritius’ Constitution of 1968 with Amendments through 2016” ).

Mexico 🖉 edit

Article 50 and 171 of Mexico’s 1824 Constitution protected press freedom:

Article 50: “The exclusive faculties of the general Congress are the following… protect and regulate the political liberty of the press.”

Article 171: “The Articles of this Constitution and the Constitutional Act which establishes the Liberty and Independence of the Mexican Nation, its Religion, form of Government, Liberty of the Press, and division of the Supreme Powers of the Federation, and of the States, can never be reformed" (Sons of Dewitt Colony, “The Constitution of the Mexican United States”).

Today, Article 6 of Mexico’s 1917 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person shall be entitled to free access to plural and timely information, as well as to search for, receive and distribute information and ideas of any kind, through any means of expression. The State shall guarantee access to information and communication technology, access to the services of radio broadcast, telecommunications and broadband Internet. To that end, the State shall establish effective competition conditions for the provision of such services" (Constitute Project, “Mexico’s Constitution of 1917 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Moldova 🖉 edit

Article 32 of Moldova’s 1994 Constitution protects press freedom as an element of freedom of expression: “Every citizen shall be guaranteed the freedom of thought and opinion, as well as the freedom of expression in public by way of word, image or any other means possible” (Președinția Republicii Moldova, “Titlul II. Drepturile, libertățile și îndatoririle fundamentale”). [Translated from Romanian]

Monaco 🖉 edit

Monaco’s earliest protections of press freedom began with the adoption of the 1848 Constitution (Ferrari 2019, p. 33).

Today, Article 23 of Monaco’s 1962 Constitution protects freedom of expression, but also includes press freedom protections: “ Freedom of religion and of public worship, and freedom to express one’s opinions in all matters, is guaranteed, subject to the right to prosecute any offences committed in the exercise of the said freedoms" Constitute Project, “Monaco’s Constitution of 1962 with Amendments through 2002” ).

Mongolia 🖉 edit

Article 16 of Mongolia’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of thought, opinion and expression, speech, press, and peaceful assembly. The rules of procedures for conduct of demonstrations and public meetings shall be determined by law" (Constitute Project, “Mongolia’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001” ).

Earlier iterations of the Mongolian Constitution, with the earliest ratified in 1924, included protections on freedom of expression that included freedom of the press.

References:

1924 Constitution of the Mongolian People's Republic: British and Foreign State Papers (1931) https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0134&id=1244&men_tab=srchresults

“Mongolia 1992 (rev. 2001).” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001

Montenegro 🖉 edit

According to Article 210 of the 1905 Montenegro Constitution: "The press is free. Censorship, warning and every preventive measure capable of preventing the issue, sale and publication of writings and of journals are forbidden except in the cases provided for by the law on the press."

As a former part of Yugoslavia, freedom of the press was protected in Montenegro under Article 36 of the Yugoslavian Constitution: “Freedom of the press and other forms of public information shall be guaranteed. Citizens shall have the right to express and publish their opinions in the mass media" (National Legislative Bodies, “Constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia”).

Today, Article 49 of Montenegro’s 2007 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of press and other forms of public information shall be guaranteed. The right to establish newspapers and other public information media, without approval, by registration with the competent authority, shall be guaranteed" (Constitute Project, “Montenegro’s Constitution of 2007 with Amendments through 2013” ).

1905 Montenegro Constitution: English translation from the French text of the original Constitution of 1905 "Part 14: The Constitutional Rights of Montenegrin Citizens," Constitution of 6/19 December 1905. (1905): 426-427: https://heinonline-org.mutex.gmu.edu/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzmb0013&id=20&collection=cow&index=

Morocco 🖉 edit

Article 28 of Morocco’s 2011 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of the press is guaranteed and may not be limited by any form of prior censure" (Constitute Project, “Morocco’s Constitution of 2011” ).

Mozambique 🖉 edit

Mozambique guaranteed press freedom in Article 74 of its 1990 Constitution: “All citizens shall have the right to freedom of expression and to freedom of the press, as well as the right to information” (World Bank, “The Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique, 1990” ).

Today, this clause is found in Article 48 of Mozambique’s 2004 Constitution (Constitute Project, “Mozambique’s Constitution of 2004 with Amendments through 2007” ).

Myanmar 🖉 edit

The 1947 Constitution of Burma originally protected press freedom as a part of freedom of expression in Chapter I, Section 17: “There shall liberty for the exercise of the following rights subject to law, public order and morality…The right of the citizens to express freely their convictions and opinions” (Burma Library, “The Constitution of the Union of Burma, 24 September 1947, Effective 4 January 1948” ).

Today, Chapter VIII, Article 354 of Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every citizen shall be at liberty in the exercise of the following rights…to express and publish freely their convictions and opinions" (Constitute Project, “Myanmar’s Constitution of 2008 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Namibia 🖉 edit

Article 21 of Namibia’s 1990 Constitution protects press freedom: “All persons shall have the right to…freedom of speech and expression, which shall include freedom of the press and other media" (Constitute Project, “Namibia’s Constitution of 1990 with Amendments through 2014” ).

Nauru 🖉 edit

Nauru’s 1968 Constitution does not contain explicit protections for press freedom, but does protect freedom of expression (Constitute Project, “Nauru’s Constitution of 1968 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Nepal 🖉 edit

Part II of Nepal’s 1948 Constitution originally protected press freedom: “Subject to the principles! of public order and morality this Constitution guarantees to the citizens of Nepal freedom of person, freedom of speech, liberty of the press, freedom of assembly and discussion, freedom of worship, complete equality in the eye of the law, cheap and speedy justice, universal free compulsory elementary education, universal and equal suffrage for all adults, security of private property as defined by the laws of the State as at present existing and laws and rules to be made hereunder” (Constitutionnet, “Constitution of Nepal Effective April 1, 1949” ).

Today, Article 19 of Nepal’s 2015 Constitution protects press freedom: “There shall be no prior censorship of publications and broadcasting, or information dissemination, or printing of any news item, editorial, article, feature, or other reading material, or the use of audio-visual material by any medium, including electronic publication, broadcasting and printing" (Constitute Project, “ Nepal’s Constitution of 2015 with Amendments through 2016” ).

New Zealand 🖉 edit

Article 14 of New Zealand’s 1852 Constitution protects press freedom under freedom of expression: “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, including the freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and opinions of any kind in any form" (Constitute Project, “New Zealand’s Constitution of 1852 with Amendments through 2014” ).

Nicaragua 🖉 edit

Article 66 of Nicaragua’s 1987 Constitution protects press freedom: “Nicaraguans have the right to truthful information. This right comprises the freedom to seek, receive and disseminate information and ideas, be they spoken or written, in graphic or by any other chosen procedure" (Constitute Project, “ Nicaragua’s Constitution of 1987 with Amendments through 2005” ).

Niger 🖉 edit

Article 100 of Niger’s 2010 Constitution protects press freedom: “The Law determines the fundamental principles…of the protection of the freedom of the press and of the access to public information and to administrative documents" (Constitute Project, “Niger’s Constitution of 2010 with Amendments through 2017” ).

Nigeria 🖉 edit

Article 25 of Nigeria’s 1963 Constitution protected press freedom: “Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference” (Global Citizenship Observatory, “The 1963 Constitution of Nigeria”).

Today, Chapter IV, Article 39 of Nigeria’s 1999 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference" (Constitute Project, “ Nigeria’s Constitution of 1999 with Amendments through 2011” ).

North Korea 🖉 edit

Article 13 of the 1948 North Korean Constitution originally protected press freedom: “Citizens of the D.P.R.K. have freedom of speech, the press, association, assembly, mass meetings and demonstration” (The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, “Constitution of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”).

Today, Article 67 of North Korea’s 1972 Constitution protects press freedom: “Citizens are guaranteed freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, demonstration and association" (Constitute Project, “ North Korea’s Constitution of 1972 with Amendments through 1998” ).

North Macedonia 🖉 edit

Article 16 of North Macedonia’s 1991 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of speech, public address, public information and the establishment of institutions for public information is guaranteed. Free access to information and the freedom of reception and transmission of information are guaranteed" (Constitute Project, “North Macedonia (Republic of)'s Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Norway 🖉 edit

Article 100 of Norway’s 1814 Constitution protects press freedom: “No person may be held liable in law for having imparted or received information, ideas or messages unless this can be justified in relation to the grounds for freedom of expression, which are the seeking of truth, the promotion of democracy and the individual's freedom to form opinions. Such legal liability shall be prescribed by law…Prior censorship and other preventive measures may not be applied unless so required in order to protect children and young persons from the harmful influence of moving pictures. Censorship of letters may only be imposed in institutions" (Constitute Project, “Norway's Constitution of 1814 with Amendments through 2014” ).

Oman 🖉 edit

Article 31 of Oman’s 1996 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of the press, printing, and publishing is guaranteed according to the terms and conditions prescribed by the Law. Anything that leads to discord, affects the security of State, or prejudices human dignity or rights, is prohibited" (Constitute Project, “ Oman’s Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Pakistan 🖉 edit

Article 19 of Pakistan’s 1973 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom of the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security or defence of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, commission of or incitement to an offence" (Constitute Project, “ Pakistan’s Constitution of 1973, reinstated in 2002 with Amendments through 2018” ).

Palau 🖉 edit

Article IV, Section 2 of Palau’s 1981 Constitution protects press freedom: “The government shall take no action to deny or impair the freedom of expression or press. No bona fide reporter may be required by the government to divulge or be jailed for refusal to divulge information obtained in the course of a professional investigation" (Constitute Project, “Palau’s Constitution of 1981 with Amendments through 1992” ).

Panama 🖉 edit

Article 37 of Panama’s 1972 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person may express his/her opinion freely, either orally, in writing or by any other means, without being subject to prior censorship. Legal responsibility (liability) will, however, be incurred when by any of these means, the reputation or honor of persons is assailed, or when social security or public order is attacked" (Constitute Project, “ Panama’s Constitution of 1972 with Amendments through 2004” ).

Papua New Guinea 🖉 edit

Article 46 of Papua New Guinea’s 1975 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person has the right to freedom of expression and publication, except to the extent that the exercise of that right is regulated or restricted by a law…‘freedom of expression and publication’ includes… freedom of the press and other mass communications media” (Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute, “Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea”).

Paraguay 🖉 edit

Article 72 of Paraguay’s 1967 Constitution first established protections on press freedom: “Freedom of expression and of information without prior Censorship are inviolable, and no law shall be enacted that limits such freedom or prevents it except in matters connected with the prohibitions contained in the preceding article” (International Foundation for Electoral Systems, “Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay”).

Today, Article 27 of Paraguay’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “The use of the mass communication media is of public interest; in consequence, their functioning may not be closed or suspended… Any discriminatory practice in the provision of supplies to the press, as well as interfering the radio-electrical frequencies and the obstruction, in any way, of the free circulation, distribution, and sale of periodicals, books, magazines, or other publications with a responsible direction or authors are prohibited" (Constitute Project, “ Paraguay’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Peru 🖉 edit

Article 3 of Peru’s 1823 Constitution originally protected press freedom (Wikisource, "Political Constitution of the Peruvian Republic of 1823" ).

Today, Article 2 of Peru’s 1993 Constitution protects press freedom: “To freedom of information, opinion, expression, and dissemination of thought, whether oral, written, or in images, through any medium of social communication, and without previous authorization, censorship, or impediment, under penalty of law" (Constitute Project, “ Peru’s Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2021” ).

Philippines 🖉 edit

The Philippines first protected press freedom under Article 20 of the 1899 Malolos Constitution: Neither shall any Filipino be deprived… Of the right to freely express his ideas or opinions, orally or in writing, through the use of the press or other similar means" (Arellano Law Foundation, " 1889 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines").

Today, Article III, Section 4 of the Philippines’ 1987 Constitution protects press freedom: “No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances" Constitute Project, “ Philippines’s Constitution of 1987” ).

Poland 🖉 edit

Title II, Section XVI of the 1815 Polish Constitution originally protected press freedom: “The liberty of the press is guaranteed. The law shall determine the method of restraining its abuses" (Wikisource, "Constitutional Charter of the Kingdom of Poland, In the Year 1815" ).

Today, Article 14 of Poland’s 1997 Constitution protects press freedom: “The Republic of Poland shall ensure freedom of the press and other means of social communication" (Constitute Project, “ Poland’s Constitution of 1997 with Amendments through 2009” ).

Portugal 🖉 edit

Articles 7 and 8 of the 1822 Portuguese Constitution originally protected press freedom: “The free communication of thoughts is one of man's most precious rights. All Portuguese may therefore, without prior censorship, express their opinions in any matter, as long as they are responsible for the abuse of this freedom in the cases, and in the form that the law determines… The Courts will appoint a Special Court, to protect the freedom of the press, and to curb the offenses resulting from its abuse, as provided for in art. 177 and 189” (O Portal da História, “CONSTITUIÇÃO PORTUGUESA DE 1822” ). [Translated from Portuguese]

Today, Article 37 of Portugal’s 1976 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone shall possess the right to freely express and publicise his thoughts in words, images or by any other means, as well as the right to inform others, inform himself and be informed without hindrance or discrimination"(Constitute Project, “Portugal’s Constitution of 1976 with Amendments through 2005” ).

Qatar 🖉 edit

Article 48 of Qatar’s 2003 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press, printing, and publishing is guaranteed according to the law" (Constitute Project, “ Qatar’s Constitution of 2003” ).

Republic of Ireland 🖉 edit

Article 40 of the 1937 Irish Constitution provides Ireland’s first explicit protections for press freedom: “the State shall endeavour to ensure that organs of public opinion, such as the radio, the press, the cinema, while preserving their rightful liberty of expression, including criticism of Government policy, shall not be used to undermine public order or morality or the authority of the State” (Constitute Project, “Ireland's Constitution of 1937 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Republic of the Congo 🖉 edit

Article 25 of Republic of Congo’s 2015 Constitution protects press freedom: “Any citizen has the right to express and to freely diffuse his opinion by words [par la parole], writing, images or by any other means of communication. The freedom of information and communication is guaranteed. It is exercised within respect for the law” (Constitute Project, “Congo (Republic of the)'s Constitution of 2015” ).

Romania 🖉 edit

Article 30 of Romania’s 1991 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom to express ideas, opinions, and beliefs, and the freedom of creation in any form-orally, in writing, through images, by means of sound, or by any other means of public communication-are inviolable…Freedom of the press also includes the freedom to establish publications" (Constitute Project, “ Romania’s Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2003” ).

Russia 🖉 edit

Article 79 of the 1906 Russian Constitution first protected press freedom: “Within the limits fixed by law every one may express his thoughts by word or writing and circulate them by means of the press or otherwise” (Northern Virginia Community College, “Fundamental Laws, 1906” ).

Today, Article 29 of Russia’s 1993 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone shall have the right to freely look for, receive, transmit, produce and distribute information by any legal way. The list of data comprising state secrets shall be determined by a federal law. The freedom of mass communication shall be guaranteed. Censorship shall be banned" (Constitute Project, “Russia’s Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2014” ).

Rwanda 🖉 edit

Article 21 of Rwanda’s 1962 Constitution originally protected press freedom: “The secrecy of correspondence, postal and telegraphic communications is inviolable” (World Digital Library, “Constitution de la République Rwandaise”). [Translated from French]

Today, Article 38 of Rwanda’s 2003 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of press, of expression and of access to information are recognised and guaranteed by the State" (Constitute Project, “ Rwanda’s Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Saint Kitts and Nevis 🖉 edit

Article 12 of Saint Kitts and Nevis’s 1983 Constitution does not explicitly mention press freedom, but includes press protections in its description of freedom of expression: “freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication is to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence" (Constitute Project, “Saint Kitts and Nevis’s Constitution of 1983” ).

Saint Lucia 🖉 edit

Chapter I, Article 9 of Saint Lucia’s 1978 Constitution protects press freedom as a part of freedom of expression: “a person shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence" (Constitute Project, “Saint Lucia’s Constitution of 1978” ).

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 🖉 edit

Article 10 of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines’ 1978 Constitution protects press freedom as a part of freedom of expression: “a person shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence" (Constitute Project, “Saint Vincent and the Grenadines’s Constitution of 1979” ).

Samoa 🖉 edit

While freedom of the press is not explicitly mentioned in Samoa’s 1962 Constitution, freedom of expression is protected and “freedom of the press is generally respected” according to Freedom House (Freedom House, "Samoa").

San Marino 🖉 edit

Article 6 of San Marino’s 1974 Declaration on the Citizens’ Right and Fundamental Principles ensures that “the privacy of any form of communication shall be protected" (WIPO, "Declaration on the Citizens’ Rights and Fundamental Principles of San Marino Constitutional Order").

Saudi Arabia 🖉 edit

Saudi Arabia has no formal protections on press freedom. Article 39 of Saudi Arabia’s 1992 Constitution outlines how the state conducts relations with the press: “Mass media, publication facilities and other means of expression shall function in a manner that is courteous and fair and shall abide by State laws. They shall play their part in educating the masses and boosting national unity. All that may give rise to mischief and discord, or may compromise the security of the State and its public image, or may offend against man's dignity and rights shall be banned. Relevant regulations shall explain how this is to be done" (Constitute Project, “Saudi Arabia’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Senegal 🖉 edit

Article 8 of Senegal’s 2001 Constitution protects press freedom: “The Republic of Senegal guarantees to all citizens the fundamental individual freedoms, the economic and social rights as well as the collective rights. These freedoms and rights are notably…the civil and political freedoms: freedom of opinion, freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, freedom of movement [déplacemnent], [and] freedom of manifestation" (Constitute Project, “ Senegal’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Serbia 🖉 edit

The 1935 Serbian Constitution protected freedom of the press, and King Milan IV of Serbia discussed freedom of the press as early as 1875: “Although nominated but a few days ago, the Ministers whom I have assembled around me in these grave circumstances, will submit to you nevertheless some projects of laws tending to improve our national institutions, to wit, a law destined to increase the securities for personal safety, a law for the extension of the liberty of the press, and a law for the extension of communal self-government” (Hertslet 1875, p. 34).

Today, Article 46 of Serbia’s 2006 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of thought and expression shall be guaranteed, as well as the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through speech, writing, art or in some other manner” (International Labour Organization, “Constitution of The Republic of Serbia”).