Semantic search

Freedom of religion was first noted in Article 33 of Mozambique’s 1975 constitution which stated that “[i]n the People’s Republic of Mozambique the State guarantees the freedom of citizens to practice or not to practice a religion” (Hein Online).

The current Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique was ratified on December 21, 2004. Articles 12.3, 12.4, 35, 39, 54, 71.1, 251, and 286 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit discrimination. Articles 12.2 and 292.1(c) create a separation between religion and the state. Article 54 of Mozambique’s constitution states that “[a]ll citizens shall have the freedom to practice or not to practice a religion. Nobody shall be discriminated against… or benefit from or be exempt from duties, on the grounds of his faith or religious persuasion or practice” (constituteproject.org).

"Section II: Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens ." Official English Translation, The Constitution of the People's Republic of Mozambique, 1975, pp. 5-6. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzmz0011&i=6.

“Mozambique 2004 (Rev. 2007) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mozambique_2007.

Constitution of the Republic of Namibia was ratified on 09 February 1990. Articles 10.2, 14.1, 19, 21, and 97 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. The preamble and Article 1.1 declare Namibia a secular state. Freedom of religion is protected for Namibian citizens under Article 21 Section 1c which states that “[a]ll persons shall have the right to… freedom to practise any religion and to manifest such practice…” (constituteproject.org).

Hishoono, Naita. “THE Constitution in the 21st Century Perspectives on the Context and Future of Namibia’s Supreme Law.” CMS. Namibia Institute for Democracy (NID) and the Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR), 2011. Last modified 2011. Accessed June 23, 2022. https://cms.my.na/assets/documents/p1a3o3rq6r1ci1ma2ld714vmtm1.pdf.

“Namibia 1990 (Rev. 2014) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Namibia_2014.

Freedom of religion was mentioned in Nepal’s first constitution of 1948 in Article 4 which stated that “[s]ubject to the principles of public order and morality, this Constitution guarantees to the citizens of Nepal… freedom of worship…” (Hein Online). Freedom of religion is now protected under Article 26 Section 1 of the current constitution which states that “[e]ach person shall be free to profess, practice, and preserve his/her religion according to his/her faith” (constituteproject.org).

“Nepal 2015 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nepal_2016.

"Part III: The Executive." Constitution of Nepal. Katmandu, 26th January, 1948., 1948, pp. 658-660. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zznp0020&i=3.

Free practice of religion was prohibited in the first Nicaraguan constitution of 1826, with Title 4 Chapter 2 Article 46 establishing that “[t]he Religion of the State is the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman, with the exclusion of the public exercise of any other” (Hein Online, 1826). Freedom of religion was first protected in the 1838 constitution under Article 53 which established Catholicism as the state religion, but stipulated that “the public exercise of the other religions is not prohibited” (Hein Online, 1838).

The current Constitution of Nicaragua was ratified on January 1, 1987. Articles 27, 29, 49, 69, 82.1, 124, and 180 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit discrimination. Article 14 declares that Nicaragua has no official religion. Article 29 states: “[e]veryone has the right to freedom of conscience and thought and to profess or not profess a religion” (constituteproject.org).

"Chapter 1: General Provisions." Constitution of the State of Nicaragua 8 April 1826, 1826, pp. 7-8. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzni0038&i=7.

"Chapter V: Of the Government and of Religion." Political Constitution of the Sovereign, Free and Independent State of Nicaragua 12 November 1838, 1838, pp. 8-8. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzni0040&i=8.

“Nicaragua 1987 (Rev. 2014) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nicaragua_2014.

Article 23.1 of the 1960 Nigerian constitution is the first time freedom of religion was protected for Nigerian citizens. It states: “Every person shall be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom… to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance” (Hein Online).

The current Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was ratified on May 29, 1999. Articles 15.2, 38, and 42.1 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious freedom. Article 10 forbids a declaration of a state religion. Article 38.1 of the current constitution uses the same language concerning freedom of religion as the 1960 Constitution (constituteproject.org).

"Chapter III: Fundamental Rights." CONSTITUTION OF THE FEDERATION OF NIGERIA, pp. [17]-[27]. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzng0011&i=22.

“Nigeria 1999 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nigeria_2011.

National Assembly of Nigeria. “Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.” Nigeria Law. Nigeria Law, 2011. Last modified 2011. Accessed June 23, 2022. http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm.

The Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia was ratified on 17 November 1991. Articles 9, 19, 20, 48, 54, 110, and amendments VII.2 and VIII.1 grant religious freedom, equality and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 19 and Amendment VII.1 declares a separation of church and state.

Article 19 states: “The freedom of religious confession is guaranteed. The right to express one's faith freely and publicly, individually or with others is guaranteed” (constituteproject.org). It also further elaborates and states that “[t]he Macedonian Orthodox Church and other religious communities and groups are separate from the state and equal before the law…” (constituteproject.org).

“North Macedonia (Republic of) 1991 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Macedonia_2011.

Republic of Macedonia. “Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia.” Government of the Republic of North Macedonia. Last modified 2019. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://vlada.mk/sites/default/files/dokumenti/zakoni/the_constitution_of_the_republic_of_north_macedonia_containing_the_valid_constitutional_provisions_in_force_as_amended_by_constitutional_amendments_i-xxxvi.pdf.

Freedom of religion is conditionally protected in Oman under Article 28 of the 1996 constitution: “The freedom to practice religious rites according to recognised customs is protected, provided it does not violate the public order or contradict morals” (constituteproject.org). However, Article 2 also establishes that “[t]he religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Sharia is the basis for legislation” (constituteproject.org).

“Oman 1996 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Oman_2011.

Sultan Haitham . “ROYAL DECREE NO. (101/96).” Ministry of Justice and Legal Affairs . Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.mjla.gov.om/eng/basicstatute.aspx.

The Constitution of the Republic of Palau was ratified on 9 July 1980. Articles IV section 1 and section 5 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article IV section 1 declares no official state religion.

Article IV Section 1 states “[t]he government shall take no action to deny or impair the freedom of conscience or of philosophical or religious belief of any person nor take any action to compel, prohibit or hinder the exercise of religion” (constituteproject.org).

“Palau 1981 (Rev. 1992) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Palau_1992.

Freedom of religion is conditionally protected under Article 45 in Papua New Guinea’s 1975 constitution: “Every person has the right to freedom of conscience, thought and religion and the practice of his religion and beliefs, including freedom to manifest and propagate his religion and beliefs in such a way as not to interfere with the freedom of others, except to the extent that the exercise of that right is regulated or restricted by a law that complies with Section 38…” (constituteproject.org). Articles 2.1, 2.5, 45, 55.1, and 233.3(aiii) grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination.

Parliament of Papua New Guinea. “Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea.” National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.parliament.gov.pg/constitution-of-the-independent-state-of-papua-new-guinea.

“Papua New Guinea 1975 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Papua_New_Guinea_2016.

The current Constitution of Peru was ratified on 31 December 1993. Articles 2.2, 2.3, and 37 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 50 recognizes the Catholic Church as historically, culturally, and morally important.

Constitution Project. “Peru 1993 (Rev. 2021) Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peru_2021?lang=en.

The first assertion of freedom of religion was in the 1991 Constitution of the Republic of the Congo under Title II, Article 26. This article articulates freedom of conscience and belief in religious and philosophical ideas and includes the specification that no one should be relieved from fulfilling a civic duty because of religious opinion. The current Constitution of the Republic of the Congo was ratified on September 22, 2015. Articles 15 and grant religious freedom, equality, and protections. The preamble, Articles 1 and 61 declare the Republic of the Congo as a secular state.

Constitution of the Republic of Congo, Refworld, UNHCR 1992. https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=52930da94

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Congo_2015.pdf?lang=en

The Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations was ratified on September 26, 1997. This law grants religious freedom, equality, and prohibits religious discrimination.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “Russia: Information on the Law ‘on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations’ and Its Impact on Religious Minorities.” Refworld. Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, November 1997. Last modified November 1997. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ab968.html.

The Constitution of Singapore was ratified on 22 December 1965. Articles 12, 15, 16, and 150.5(iii) grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 153 grants a provision for a council to regulate Muslim affairs. Parliament of Singapore . “CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE.” Singapore Statutes Online. Last modified December 1, 2021. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/CONS1963.

The first assertion of the freedom of religion in the Republic of Singapore is in the first constitution of the Republic in 1959 after becoming independent from the United Kingdom. The right is detailed in article 15; which also details that a person may not be compelled to pay taxes for religious purposes outside his own religion as well as generally describing the freedoms of each religious group. It is important to note Singapore also records the same article in the 1963/1965 Constitution after being expelled from Malaysia. Republic of Singapore. 1959. “Singapore’s Constitution of 1959 with Amendments through 2010.” Constitute Project. 1959. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/sin132840.pdf. ———. 1965. “Constitution of the Republic of Singapore - Singapore Statutes Online.” Sso.agc.gov.sg. 1965. https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/CONS1963?ValidDate=20230424. The Republic of Singapore. 1963. “Singapore 1963 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute.” Www.constituteproject.org. 1963. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Singapore_2016.

The first assertion of the freedom of religion in Tajikistan is the 1994 Constitution post-independence from the Soviet Union. The right is found in article 26 which allows the individual, or group to adhere to any religion or none.

An amendment to current law (enforced in January 2018) permits restrictions on religious activity for the sole purpose of ensuring the rights and freedoms of others, as well as banning one religious sect from being state ideology (U.S. Department of State, "2018 Report on International Religious Freedom: Tajikistan").

The first assertion of the freedom of religion in Thailand is the 1932 constitution which asserts the freedom of religion in Section 13. Section 13 highlights the freedom of worship and belief but limits the freedom ‘if contrary to the duties of a national or to public order or public morals’.

https://media.bloomsburyprofessional.com/rep/files/thailand-constitution-1932-december.pdf

The Gambia Independence Order of 1965, written on January 29th, 1965, and presented to the British Parliament in the same year, protects and guarantees the right to freedom of religion in Gambia. Article 19 deals with freedom of conscience and its six sections address freedom of religion, granting it to all citizens (“The Gambia Independence Order” 1965). Under the 2020 Constitution of the Gambia Articles 1.3, 4.d, 12, 32, 49, 67, 69, 274.1(d), and 296.2(d) offer extensive religious protections and prohibit religious discrimination, and Articles 88.5(b) and 153.2(b) declare that the president and national assembly may not establish a national religion.

“The Gambia Independence Order” 1965. Citizenshiprightsafrica.org http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Gambia-Constitution-1965.pdf

Constitution Project “Gambia (the) 2020 Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Gambia_2020D?lang=en#:~:text=Gambia%20(The)%202020%20Constitution%20%2D%20Constitute.

The first assertion of religious freedom is seen under Part I, Article 5, in the 1875 Constitution of Tonga. This article protects the freedom of worship. Under Article 6, is also the protection to keep the Sabbath Day holy.

Constitute Project. 1875 Constitution of Tonga. (rev. 2013) https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tonga_2013

Under Chapter I, Article 5, Freedom of religion is asserted in the Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia. Article 5 specifically guarantees fundamental freedoms and human rights, covering Freedom of religion and conscience in the last point made, “provided it does not not disturb public order.

Constitute Project. 1959 Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2008

In the 2008 Constitution of the Turkish Republic, Freedom of Religion is covered under Section I, Article 12. This constitution established the state as secular, and guaranteed equality regardless of religion, separation of church and state, and the right to declare any religion or none under Article 12.

Constitute Project. Constitution of Turkmenistan 2008. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_2008

In the 1962 Constitution of Uganda, Freedom of Religion is asserted in Chapter III, Article 25. Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion are all covered under this Article, and also the freedom to change belief and religion. This the first constitution of Uganda following their independence in 1962.

World Statesman. Uganda Constitutional Instruments and Independence Order. 1962. https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Uganda-const-1962.pdf

In the 1971 Constitution of the United Arab Emirates, under Part Three, Article 32, freedom to exercise religious worship is guaranteed as long as it is in accordance with established customs and does not conflict with public policy or morals. Equality regardless of religion is asserted under Article 25, however, islam is declared the official religion under Article 7.

Ref World. Constitution of the United Arab Emirates 1971. https://www.refworld.org/docid/48eca8132.html

The first assertion of religious freedom within Uzbekistan was in the 1992 Constitution, under Part Two, Chapter 7, Article 31. This article protects the right to profess or not profess any religion, and declares any compulsory imposition of religion impermissible.

United Nations. The Permanent Mission of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Nations. Constitution of the United Nations. 1992. https://www.un.int/uzbekistan/uzbekistan/constitution-republic-uzbekistan

The Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela was ratified on December 19, 1999. Articles 21.1, 59, and 89.5 grant religious freedom and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 119 protect the religious rights of indigenous people.

Constitution Project. “Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 1999 (Rev. 2009) Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed July 5, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Venezuela_2009?lang=en.

In the 1991 Constitution of Yemen, Islam is declared the state religion. Freedom of religion is not mentioned explicitly, however article 27 asserts that all citizens are equal and shall not be discriminated against regardless of religion.

Human Rights Library. Constitution of Yemen 1991. http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/yemen-constitution.html

In the 1964 Constitution of Rhodesia, freedom of religion is asserted in Part 2, Chapter VII, Article 72. When Zimbabwe became an independent state in 1980, The Constitution asserted religious freedom Under Chapter III, Article 19. The current Constitution of Zimbabwe was ratified on 16 March 2013. Articles 5(ciii), 56.3, and 60 grant religious freedoms, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination.

World Statesman. Constitution of Rhodesia. 1965. https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Rhodesia_1965.pdf

Refworld. Constitution of Zimbabwe. 1980. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5720.html

Parliament of Zimbabwe . “Constitution of Zimbabwe.” Last modified August 9, 2021. Accessed July 6, 2022. https://parlzim.gov.zw/download/constitution-of-zimbabwe-amendment-no-20-14-05-2013/.

According to Article 197 of the 1928 Fundamental Statute of the Kingdom of Albania: "Freedom of speech and of the press is guaranteed, and a censorship may not be instituted, except in case of war mobilisation or other extraordinary event defined by the law. The regulation of the press, the confiscation of press matter and the prosecution of the press are determined by law."

Article 53 of the 1976 Albanian Constitution states that “citizens enjoy the freedom of speech, the press, organization, association, assembly and public manifestation. The state guarantees the realization of these freedoms, it creates the conditions for them, and makes available the necessary material means” (“The Albanian Constitution of 1976) .

Today, Part 2, Article 22 of the 1998 Albanian Constitution recognizes freedom of the press, radio, and television as part of its list of “Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms”. Article 22 also states that “Prior censorship of means of communication is prohibited” (Constitute Project, Albania's Constitution of 1998 with Amendments through 2012” ).

References:

1928 Fundamental Statute of the Kingdom of Albania: https://www.hoelseth.com/royalty/albania/albconst19281201.html

Albania Constitution (1976): https://data.globalcit.eu/NationalDB/docs/ALB%20The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Socialist%20Republic%20of%20Albania%201976.pdf

Albania Constitution (1998): https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Albania_2016?lang=en.

Article 12 of the 1993 Andorran Constitution states that Freedoms of expression, of communication and of information are guaranteed. The law shall regulate the right of reply, the right of correction and professional secrecy” (Constitute Project, “Andorra’s 1993 Constitution”).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Andorra_1993?lang=en.

Schedule 1, Chapter II of Antigua and Barbuda’s Constitution titled “Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the Individual” explicitly protects freedom of the press (Political Database of the Americas, “The Antigua and Barbuda Constitutional Order 1981” ).

References:

“Republic of Antigua and Barbuda / República Del Antigua y Barbuda Constitution of 1981 Constituciones De 1981.” Antigua and Barbuda: Constitution, 1981: https://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Antigua/antigua-barbuda.html.

The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Armenia guaranteed freedom of the press. Article 24 of the 1995 Constitution of Armenia asserted freedoms relevant to freedom of the press: "Everyone is entitled to assert his or her opinion. No one shall be forced to retract or change his or her opinion. Everyone is entitled to freedom of speech, including the freedom to seek, receive and disseminate information and ideas through any medium of information, regardless of state borders." After amendment in 2005, additional language relevant to freedom of the press was added to the Constitution of Armenia: "Freedom of mass media and other means of mass information shall be guaranteed. The state shall guarantee the existence and activities of an independent and public radio and television service offering a variety of informational, cultural and entertaining programs." Article 42 of the Constitution of Armenia after amendment in 2015 state the right explicitly: "The freedom of the press, radio, television and other means of information shall be guaranteed. The State shall guarantee the activities of independent public television and radio offering diversity of informational, educational, cultural and entertainment programmes."

References:

Armenian Declaration of Independence: https://www.gov.am/en/independence/

"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng

"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (with the Amendments of 27 November 2005)": http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=eng

"Amendments to the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (2015): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=5805&lang=eng

Article 13 of Austria’s 1867 “Basic Law on the General Rights of Nationals in the Kingdoms and Länder represented in the Council of the Realm” states that “Everyone has the right within the limits of the law freely to express his opinion by word of mouth and in writing, print, or pictorial representation. The Press may be neither subjected to censorship nor restricted by the licensing System. Administrative postal distribution vetoes do not apply to inland publication” (Basic Law of 21 December 1867) .

References:

1867 Basic Law: https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/au03000_.html

Article 24 of the 1973 Bahraini Constitution states that “Freedom of the press, printing and publication shall be guaranteed in accordance with the conditions and procedure specified by the law.”

References:

1973 Constitution: https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ba01000_.html

Barbados’s 1966 Constitution does not explicitly protect freedom of the press, but includes freedom to “receive” and “communicate ideas and information without interference” in its protection of freedom of expression (Political Database of the Americas, “Constitution of 1966” ).

References:

https://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Barbados/barbados66.html

Article 23 of the 27 October 1830 Draft Constitution of Belgium states that “The press is free. Censorship [la censure] should never be established, and cautioning of writers, editors or printers may not be demanded.”

References:

English translation of the French text of the draft of the constitution of 27 October 1830 35 (2009): https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzbe0096&id=5&men_tab=srchresults

Cambodia originally protected freedom of the press under Section 2, Article 9 of its 1947 Constitution: “Every Cambodian is free to speak, write, print and publish. He may, either by way of the press or any other means express, spread, defend every opinion so long as he makes no unauthorized use of that right or does not tend to disturb the public order.”

Today, Chapter III, Article 41 of the 1993 Cambodian Constitution protects press freedom: “Khmer citizens shall have freedom of expression of their ideas, freedom of information, freedom of publication and freedom of assembly (Constitute Project, “Cambodia 1993 (rev. 2008) ”).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cambodia_2008?lang=en.

https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzkh0002&collection=cow

Freedom of the press is protected under section 2(b) of Canadian Charter on Rights and Freedoms as part of the Constitution Act of 1982: “Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: • (a) freedom of conscience and religion; • (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication; • (c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and • (d) freedom of association.”

(Justice Laws Website, “Constitution Act 1982” ).

Article 13 of the 1994 Constitution stated "Freedom of the press is recognised and guaranteed. It is exercised within the conditions fixed by law. The exercise of this liberty and equal access for all to the medias of the state are assured by an independent organ, the status of which is fixed by law."

Article 15 of the current 2016 Constitution states that “the freedom of the press is recognized and guaranteed. It is exercised within the conditions established by the law” (Constitute Project, “Central African Republic's Constitution of 2016” ).

https://g7plus.fd.uc.pt/pdfs/CentralAfricanRepublic.pdf

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Central_African_Republic_2016?lang=en

Chile originally protected freedom of the press under Article XXIII of its 1812 Provisional Constitutional Regulations: “The press will enjoy legal freedom; and so that it does not degenerate into a license harmful to religion, customs and honor of citizens and country; rules will be prescribed by the Government and Senate” (Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile). [Translated from Spanish].

Today, Chapter III, Article 19 of Chile’s 1980 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom to express opinion and to inform, without prior censorship, in any form and by any medium, without prejudice to responsibility for any crimes or abuses committed in the exercise of these freedoms, in conformity with the law, which must be of qualified quorum. In no case can the law establish [a] state monopoly over the media of social communication” (Constitute Project, “Chile's Constitution of 1980 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Chile is currently drafting a new constitution.

The first legal reference to press freedom in Colombia arose in Article 16 of Cundinamarca’s Departmental Constitution in 1811: “The Government guarantees to all its citizens the sacred rights of Religion, individual property and freedom, and that of the press, the authors being solely responsible for their productions…” (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes). [Translated from Spanish]

Today, Title II, Article 20 of Colombia’s 1991 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every individual is guaranteed the freedom to express and diffuse his/her thoughts and opinions, to transmit and receive information that is true and impartial, and to establish mass communications media (Constitute Project, “Colombia's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2005” ).

Costa Rica originally operated under the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which protected freedom of the press under Article 131: The powers and duties of the Courts are…to protect the political liberty of the press” (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, “The Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy: Promulgated in Cádiz, the nineteenth day of March”).

Today, Title IV, Article 29 of the 1949 Costa Rican Constitution protects freedom of the press: “Every one may communicate their thoughts by words or in writing and publish them without prior censorship; but they will be responsible for the abuses committed in the exercise of this right, in the cases and the mode that the law establishes” (Constitute Project, “Costa Rica's Constitution of 1949 with Amendments through 2011” ).

Cuba’s 1901 Constitution, its first as an independent nation, protected press freedom under Article 25: “Every person may freely, without censorship, express his thought either by word of mouth or in writing, through the press, or in any other manner whatsoever, subject to the responsibilities specified by law, whenever thereby attacks are made upon the honor of individuals, upon social order, and upon public peace” (George A. Smathers Libraries, “Translation of the proposed constitution for Cuba”).

Today, Article 55 of the 2019 Cuban Constitution protects press freedom: “People's freedom of press is recognized. This right is exercised according to the law and for the good of society. The fundamental means of social communication, in any of their forms, are the socialist property of all people or of political, social, and mass organizations, and may not be categorized as any other type of property. The State establishes the principles of organization and operation for all means of social communication” (Constitute Project, “Cuba's Constitution of 2019” ).

As a part of Czechoslovakia, freedom of the press was protected by Article 113 of the 1920 Czechoslovakian Constitution: “Freedom of the Press as well as the right to assemble peaceably and without arms and to form associations is guaranteed” (Masarykova Univerzita, “The Constitutional charter of the Czechoslovak Republic”).

Today, Article 17 of the 1992 Czech Constitution protects freedom of the press: “Everyone has the right to express his views in speech, in writing, in the press, in pictures, or in any other form, as well as freely to seek, receive, and disseminate ideas and information irrespective of the frontiers of the state” (Constitute Project, “Czech Republic's Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2002” ).

Article 15 of Egypt’s 1923 Constitution initially protected freedom of the press: “The press shall be free within the limits of the law. Censorship of newspapers shall be prohibited. Warning, suspension or cancellation of papers via administrative means shall also be prohibited unless necessary for protecting social order” (Constitutionnet, “Royal Decree No. 42 of 1923” ).

Today, Article 70 of the 2014 Egyptian Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of press and printing, along with paper, visual, audio and digital distribution is guaranteed. Egyptians -- whether natural or legal persons, public or private -- have the right to own and issue newspapers and establish visual, audio and digital media outlets” (Constitute Project, “Egypt's Constitution of 2014” ).

References:

“Royal Decree No. 42 of 1923” 1923: https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1923_-_egyptian_constitution_english_1.pdf

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2019?lang=en

Paragraph 13 of Estonia’s 1920 Constitution first outlined protections on press freedom: “In Estonia there is freedom for the expression of personal ideas in words, print, letters, pictures, and sculpture. This freedom can be restricted only in the defense of the State and morals” (Wikisource, “Constitution of the Esthonian Republic ( 1920) ”).

Today, Article 45 of Estonia’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone has the right to freely disseminate ideas, opinions, beliefs and other information by word, print, picture or other means” (Constitute Project, “Estonia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Freedom of the press was first protected under Article 41 of Ethiopia’s 1955 Constitution: “Freedom of speech and of the press is guaranteed throughout the Empire in accordance with the law.”

Today, Article 29 of Ethiopia’s 1994 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press and other mass media and freedom of artistic creativity is guaranteed. Freedom of the press shall specifically include the following elements: a. Prohibition of any form of censorship. b. Access to information of public interest.” (Constitute Project, “Ethiopia's Constitution of 1994” ).

Although it did not explicitly protect press freedom, Fiji’s 1970 Constitution did protect, in the course of its guarantee of freedom of expression, “freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference, and freedom from interference with…correspondence” (PacLII, “Fiji Independence Order 1970 and Constitution of Fiji”). Furthermore, the list of potential qualifications or exceptions to this right suggests that freedom of expression was conceived in the 1970 Fiji Constitution as including freedom of the press:

"Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question makes provision - (a) in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality or public health; (b) for the purpose of protecting the reputations, rights or freedoms of other persons or the private lives of persons concerned in legal proceedings, preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, maintaining the authority and independence of the courts, or regulating the technical administration or the technical operation of telephony, telegraphy, posts, wireless broadcasting or television...."

Today, Article 17 of Fiji’s 2013 Constitution explicitly protects press freedom: “Every person has the right to freedom of speech, expression, thought, opinion and publication, which includes… freedom of the press, including print, electronic and other media” (Constitute Project, “Fiji's Constitution of 2013” ).

References:

1970 Constitution of Fiji: https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/1970_constitution.pdf

2013 Constitution of Fiji: https://www.laws.gov.fj/Home/information/constitutionoftherepublicoffiji#:~:text=The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Republic,the%20procedures%20in%20the%20Constitution.

The importance of press freedom was originally emphasized in Article XI of the 1789 Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen: “The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law” (Yale Law School, “Declaration of the Rights of Man – 1789” ).

This clause is now contained in Article 11 of the France’s 1958 Constitution (Constitute Project, “France's Constitution of 1958 with Amendments through 2008” ).

Ghana’s 1979 Constitution protected the right “to receive and impart ideas and information. without interference, and freedom from interference with his correspondence” (Constitutionnet, “Constitution of the Third Republic of Ghana (Promulgated) Decree, 1979” ).

Today, Article 21 of Ghana’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “freedom of speech and expression, which shall include freedom of the press and other media” (Constitute Project, “Ghana's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 1996” ).

Article 7 of the 1990 Guinean Constitution protected freedom to “express, manifest, disseminate…ideas and opinions through speech, writing and image. He is free to learn and obtain information from sources accessible to all” (WIPO, “Constitution du 23 décembre 1990” ) [Translated from French]

Today, Article 7 of Guinea’s 2010 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of the Press is guaranteed and protected. The creation of an organ of [the] press or of [the] media for political, economical, social, cultural, sports, recreational or scientific information is free” (Constitute Project, “Guinea's Constitution of 2010” ).

Article 117 of the 1839 Honduran Constitution first protected press freedom: “It will not be possible to restrict in any case or by any pretext, the freedom of thought, of the word, that of writing, or that of the press” (Bufeterosa, “Constitucion de 1839” ). [Translated from Spanish]

Article 72 of the 1982 Honduran Constitution states that “expression of thought shall be free, and be expressed through any means of dissemination, without prior censorship” (Constitute Project, “Honduras's Constitution of 1982 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Iceland’s first press freedom protections came while it was a part of Denmark under Section 77 of the 1849 Danish Constitutional Act (see above).

Today, Freedom of the press is not explicitly protected in Iceland’s 1944 Constitution. However, Article 73’s protections for freedom of expression extend to the press: “Everyone shall be free to express his thoughts, but shall also be liable to answer for them in court. The law may never provide for censorship or other similar limitations to freedom of expression” (Constitute Project, “Iceland's Constitution of 1944 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Article 12 of Iraq’s 1925 Constitution first protected press freedom: “Freedom of expression of opinion, liberty of publication, of meeting together, and of forming and joining associations is guaranteed to all Iraqis within such limits as may be prescribed by law”.

Article 38 of Iraq’s 2005 Constitution protects press freedom: “The State shall guarantee in a way that does not violate public order and morality… Freedom of press, printing, advertisement, media and publication” (Constitute Project, “Iraq's Constitution of 2005” ).

References:

Iraq 1925 Constitution: https://constitution.org/1-Constitution/cons/iraq/iraqiconst19250321.html

“Iraq 2005 Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 19, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iraq_2005.

In the 1963 Constitution freedom of the press can be inferred from Article 23(1): "Except with his own consent, no. person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, that is to say, freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence."

Article 34 of the 2010 Kenyan Constitution explicitly guarantees freedom of the media: “Freedom and independence of electronic, print and all other types of media is guaranteed…” (Constitute Project, “Kenya's Constitution of 2010” ).

References:

1963 Constitution of Kenya: http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/1963_Constitution.pdf

2010 Constitution of Kenya: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Kenya_2010

Article 16.2 of the 1993 Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic as amended in February 1996 asserts that all persons in the country shall enjoy "freedom of the press, transmission and dissemination of information".

References:

1993 Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic as amended in February 1996: http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/kyrgyzrepublic-constitution.html

The 1966 Constitution of Lesotho offers a general freedom of expression. Article 14 of Lesotho’s 1993 Constitution states: “Every person shall be entitled to, and (except with his own consent) shall not be hindered in his enjoyment of, freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence." (Constitute Project, “Lesotho’ Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2018” ).

References:

1966 Lesotho Constitution: O’LEARY, B. L. “THE CONSTITUTION OF LESOTHO: AN OUTLINE.” The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 1, no. 2 (1968): 266–70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23240737.

1993 Lesotho Constitution:https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Lesotho_2018.

Article 23 of Libya’s 1951 Constitution originally protected press freedom: “Freedom of press and of printing shall be guaranteed within the limits of the law" (Constitutionnet, “Libya’s Constitution”).

Today, Article 14 of Libya’s 2011 Constitution protects press freedom: “The State shall guarantee freedom of opinion, individual and collective expression, research, communication, press, media, printing and editing, movement, assembly, demonstration and peaceful sit-in in accordance with the statute" (Constitute Project, Libya’s Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Lithuania’s 1918 Constitution “guaranteed freedom of speech and the press, religion and conscience” (Vardys 1979, p. 321).

Today, Article 44 of the 1992 Lithuanian Constitution protects press freedom: “Censorship of mass information shall be prohibited. The State, political parties, political and public organization, and other institutions or persons may not monopolise the mass media" (Constitute Project, “Lithuania’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019” ).

According to Reporters Without Borders, "Press freedom is theoretically guaranteed by article 10 of the constitution, which provides for the freedom of expression." However, Malaysia’s Constitution contains no explicit protections on press freedom.

References:

1957 Malaysia Constitution: http://www.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.html Malaysia's Constitution of 1957 with Amendments through 2007: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007.pdf

Article 16 of Mongolia’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of thought, opinion and expression, speech, press, and peaceful assembly. The rules of procedures for conduct of demonstrations and public meetings shall be determined by law" (Constitute Project, “Mongolia’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001” ).

Earlier iterations of the Mongolian Constitution, with the earliest ratified in 1924, included protections on freedom of expression that included freedom of the press.

References:

1924 Constitution of the Mongolian People's Republic: British and Foreign State Papers (1931) https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0134&id=1244&men_tab=srchresults

“Mongolia 1992 (rev. 2001).” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001

The 1947 Constitution of Burma originally protected press freedom as a part of freedom of expression in Chapter I, Section 17: “There shall liberty for the exercise of the following rights subject to law, public order and morality…The right of the citizens to express freely their convictions and opinions” (Burma Library, “The Constitution of the Union of Burma, 24 September 1947, Effective 4 January 1948” ).

Today, Chapter VIII, Article 354 of Myanmar’s 2008 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every citizen shall be at liberty in the exercise of the following rights…to express and publish freely their convictions and opinions" (Constitute Project, “Myanmar’s Constitution of 2008 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Article 13 of the 1948 North Korean Constitution originally protected press freedom: “Citizens of the D.P.R.K. have freedom of speech, the press, association, assembly, mass meetings and demonstration” (The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, “Constitution of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”).

Today, Article 67 of North Korea’s 1972 Constitution protects press freedom: “Citizens are guaranteed freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, demonstration and association" (Constitute Project, “ North Korea’s Constitution of 1972 with Amendments through 1998” ).

Article 72 of Paraguay’s 1967 Constitution first established protections on press freedom: “Freedom of expression and of information without prior Censorship are inviolable, and no law shall be enacted that limits such freedom or prevents it except in matters connected with the prohibitions contained in the preceding article” (International Foundation for Electoral Systems, “Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay”).

Today, Article 27 of Paraguay’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “The use of the mass communication media is of public interest; in consequence, their functioning may not be closed or suspended… Any discriminatory practice in the provision of supplies to the press, as well as interfering the radio-electrical frequencies and the obstruction, in any way, of the free circulation, distribution, and sale of periodicals, books, magazines, or other publications with a responsible direction or authors are prohibited" (Constitute Project, “ Paraguay’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011” ).

The Philippines first protected press freedom under Article 20 of the 1899 Malolos Constitution: Neither shall any Filipino be deprived… Of the right to freely express his ideas or opinions, orally or in writing, through the use of the press or other similar means" (Arellano Law Foundation, " 1889 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines").

Today, Article III, Section 4 of the Philippines’ 1987 Constitution protects press freedom: “No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances" Constitute Project, “ Philippines’s Constitution of 1987” ).

Articles 7 and 8 of the 1822 Portuguese Constitution originally protected press freedom: “The free communication of thoughts is one of man's most precious rights. All Portuguese may therefore, without prior censorship, express their opinions in any matter, as long as they are responsible for the abuse of this freedom in the cases, and in the form that the law determines… The Courts will appoint a Special Court, to protect the freedom of the press, and to curb the offenses resulting from its abuse, as provided for in art. 177 and 189” (O Portal da História, “CONSTITUIÇÃO PORTUGUESA DE 1822” ). [Translated from Portuguese]

Today, Article 37 of Portugal’s 1976 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone shall possess the right to freely express and publicise his thoughts in words, images or by any other means, as well as the right to inform others, inform himself and be informed without hindrance or discrimination"(Constitute Project, “Portugal’s Constitution of 1976 with Amendments through 2005” ).

Article 21 of Rwanda’s 1962 Constitution originally protected press freedom: “The secrecy of correspondence, postal and telegraphic communications is inviolable” (World Digital Library, “Constitution de la République Rwandaise”). [Translated from French]

Today, Article 38 of Rwanda’s 2003 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of press, of expression and of access to information are recognised and guaranteed by the State" (Constitute Project, “ Rwanda’s Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015” ).

The 1935 Serbian Constitution protected freedom of the press, and King Milan IV of Serbia discussed freedom of the press as early as 1875: “Although nominated but a few days ago, the Ministers whom I have assembled around me in these grave circumstances, will submit to you nevertheless some projects of laws tending to improve our national institutions, to wit, a law destined to increase the securities for personal safety, a law for the extension of the liberty of the press, and a law for the extension of communal self-government” (Hertslet 1875, p. 34).

Today, Article 46 of Serbia’s 2006 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of thought and expression shall be guaranteed, as well as the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through speech, writing, art or in some other manner” (International Labour Organization, “Constitution of The Republic of Serbia”).

As a part of Czechoslovakia, freedom of the press was protected by Article 113 of the 1920 Czechoslovakian Constitution: “Freedom of the Press as well as the right to assemble peaceably and without arms and to form associations is guaranteed” (Masarykova Univerzita, “The Constitutional charter of the Czechoslovak Republic”).

Today, Article 26 of Slovakia’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every person has the right to express his or her opinion in words, writing, print, images and any other means, and also to seek, receive and disseminate ideas and information both nationally and internationally. No approval process shall be required for publication of the press. Radio and television companies may be required to seek permission from the State authorities to set up private businesses. Further details shall be provided by law. Censorship shall be prohibited" (Constitute Project, “Slovakia’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2017” ).

South Africa’s Progressive Federal Party pushed to include freedom of the press as a part of a Bill of Rights during the drafting of the 1983 South African Constitution, but it was ultimately rejected by the rest of Parliament (SAMEDIA, “PFP’s lone stand on ‘Rights’”).

Today, Article 16 of South Africa’s 1996 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes…freedom of the press and other media" (Constitute Project, “South Africa’s Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2012” ).

Chapter IV of the 1972 Sri Lankan Constitution first protected press freedom: “every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, including publication" (Parliament of Sri Lanka, "The Constitution of Sri Lanka (Ceylon)").

Article 14 of Sri Lanka’s 1978 Constitution protects press freedom: “Every citizen is entitled to…the freedom of speech and expression including publication" Constitute Project, “Sri Lanka’s Constitution of 1978 with Amendments through 2015” ).

Article 55 of Switzerland’s 1874 Constitution first protected press freedom: “The freedom of the press is guaranteed" (ICL Project, "Switzerland > Constitution 1874" ).

Today, Article 17 of Switzerland’s 1999 Constitution protects press freedom: “Freedom of the press, radio and television and of other forms of dissemination of features and information by means of public telecommunications is guaranteed" (Constitute Project, “Switzerland’s Constitution of 1999 with Amendments through 2014” ).

Tanzania’s 1961 Constitution did not explicitly protect press freedom, but did protect freedom of expression (Citizenship Rights Africa, "The Tanganyika Constitution"

Today, Article 18 of Tanzania’s 1977 Constitution protects press freedom as a part of freedom of expression: “Without prejudice to expression the laws of the land, every person has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and to seek, receive and impart or disseminate information and ideas through any media regardless of national frontiers, and also has the right of freedom from interference with his communications" (Constitute Project, “Tanzania’s Constitution of 1977 with Amendments through 2005” ).

Article 23 of the 1973 Bahamian Constitution states that:

“Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this Article to the extent that the law in question makes provision which is reasonably required for the purposes of protecting the rights, reputations and freedoms of other persons, preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, maintaining the authority and independence of the courts, or regulating telephony, telegraphy, posts, wireless broadcasting, television, public exhibitions or public entertainment” (Constitute Project, “Bahamas (The)'s Constitution of 1973” ).

Article 12 of Togo’s 1963 Constitution first protected press freedom: “Everyone has the right to express and freely disseminate their opinions through speech, pen and image in compliance with laws and regulations” (World Digital Library, “Constitution de la Republique Togolaise”). [Translated from French]

Today, Article 26 of Togo’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “The freedom of the press is recognized and guaranteed by the State. It is protected by the law" (Constitute Project, “Togo’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2007” ).

Article 12 of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 first protected press freedom in modern-day Turkey: “The press is free, within limits imposed by law" (The Individualisation of War, "The Ottoman Constitution").

Today, Article 26 of Turkey’s 1982 Constitution protects press freedom: “Everyone has the right to express and disseminate his/her thoughts and opinions by speech, in writing or in pictures or through other media, individually or collectively. This freedom includes the liberty of receiving or imparting information or ideas without interference by official authorities. This provision shall not preclude subjecting transmission by radio, television, cinema, or similar means to a system of licensing" (Constitute Project, “Turkey’s Constitution of 1982 with Amendments through 2017” ).

Article 141 of Uruguay’s 1830 Constitution first protected press freedom: “The communication of thoughts by words, private writings, or published by the press in all matters is entirely free, without the need for prior censorship; the author being responsible, and where appropriate the printer, for the abuses they commit, in accordance with the law" (Republica Oriental de Uruguay, "Constitucion de la Republica," 1830) . [Translated from Spanish]

Article 29 of Uruguay’s 1967 Constitution protects press freedom: “The communication of thoughts is entirely free in all matters, by words, private writings or published in the press, or by any another form of disclosure, without the need for prior censorship" (Centro de Informacion Oficial, "Constitucion de la Republica," 1967) .

Article 10 of Vietnam’s 1946 Constitution first protected press freedom: “A Vietnamese citizen has the rights to freedoms… of the press" (Bloomsbury, "Vietnam Constitution 1946" ).

Article 25 of Vietnam’s 1992 Constitution protects press freedom: “The citizen shall enjoy the right to freedom of opinion and speech, freedom of the press, to access to information, to assemble, form associations and hold demonstrations. The practice of these rights shall be provided by the law" (Constitute Project, “Vietnam’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2013” ).

Article 20 of Zambia’s 1991 Constitution protects press freedom under freedom of expression: “no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of expression, that is to say, freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to impart and communicate ideas and information without interference, whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons, and freedom from interference with his correspondence" (Constitute Project, "Zambia's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2016" ).

This clause first appeared in Article 22 of Zambia’s 1962 Constitution (World Statesmen, "Laws of Zambia: The Constitution").

The 1964 Afghan Constitution protected only the right to privacy in the home in Article 28 (“Afghanistan 1964 Constitution”). Today, Article 38 offers similar protections and Article 37 protects communications (Constitute Project, “Afghanistan 2004 Constitution”).

References:

1964 Afghanistan Constitution: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=afghanenglish

2004 Afghanistan Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Afghanistan_2004?%20lang=en

Today, the 2020 constitution protects the inviolability of the domicile in Article 47 and, in Article 46, private life and private communication (Constitute Project, “Algeria 2020” ). Previously, these rights were protected in the 1976 Constitution in Articles 39 and 40 (International Constitutional Law Project, Algeria Constitution”).

References:

2020 Algeria Constitution: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Algeria_2020

1976 Algeria Constitution: https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ag00000_.html

Article 24 of the 1975 Constitution stated: "The People's Republic of Angola guarantees individual freedoms, namely the inviolability of the home and the privacy of correspondence, subject to the limits expressly provided for by law." Today, privacy rights are protected in Articles 32 (personal and family life), 33 (home), and 34 (correspondence and communication) of the 2010 constitution.

References:

1975 Angola Constitution: “The Constitution of the People’s Republic of Angola.” World Constitutions Illustrated, Heinonline. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/rsl2&i=197

2010 Angola Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Angola_2010

Articles 18 & 19 of the 1853 constitution protect privacy. Article 18(2) reads, “The residence is inviolable, as are letters and private papers; and a law shall determine in what cases and for what reasons their search and seizure shall be allowed,” while Article 19 reads, “The private actions of men that in no way offend public order or morality, nor injure a third party, are reserved only to God, and are exempt from the authority of the magistrates” (Constitute Project, “Argentina 1853, reinst. 1983, rev. 1994” ).

References:

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Argentina_1994

Australia ratified the ICCPR in 1980, a treaty that includes privacy rights. According to the Australian Human Rights Commission: "The right to privacy under the ICCPR includes a right to private life (including intimate behaviour between consenting adults), as confirmed for example by the UN Human Rights Committee in Toonen v Australia." Though there is no federal right to privacy, some regions of Australia have extended regional protections, such as the ACT Human Rights Act of 2004.

References:

Australian Human Rights Commission: https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/rights-and-freedoms/how-are-human-rights-protected-australian-law

ACT Human Rights Commission: https://www.hrc.act.gov.au/humanrights/rights-protected-in-the-act/right-to-privacy-and-reputation

Today, Article 32 of the 1995 constitution protects privacy. It is quite detailed but protects personal privacy, family life, personal information, and correspondence. Article 33 extends privacy rights to the residence (Constitute Project, “Azerbaijan 1995 rev. 2016” ).

References:

“Azerbaijan 1995 (rev. 2016).” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Azerbaijan_2016

Blaustein, Albert P., and Gisbert H. Flanz. Constitutions of the Countries of the World; a Series of Updated Texts, Constitutional Chronologies and Annotated Bibliographies. "Azerbaijan Republic, Booklet 2, 1996" Permanent ed. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y: Oceana Publications, 1971.

Article 43 of the 1972 Bangladesh Constitution grants the right to privacy in the home and correspondence: "Every citizen shall have the right, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interests of the security of the State, public order, public morality or public health- (a) to be secured in his home against entry, search and seizure; and to the privacy of his correspondence and other means of communication."

References:

http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/bangladesh-constitution.pdf

Article 28 of the 1994 Belarus Constitution asserts protection of many elements of private life, including communications and correspondence. Article 29 asserts protection of the status of the home.

References:

https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzby0006&id=4&men_tab=srchresults

https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/Belarus%20Constitution.pdf

https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e

In its only constitution since its independence, Belize protects privacy rights in Article 3(c). It protects family life, personal privacy, one’s home, and their dignity (Constitute Project, “Belize 1981 rev. 2011” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Belize_2011

In 2008, a new constitution was passed, which protected privacy rights in Article 19. Article 19 reads: "A person shall not be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence nor to unlawful attacks on the person's honour and reputation.”

References:

Bhutan 2008 Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Bhutan_2008

Privacy rights have been protected in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1995 with their independence from Yugoslavia. The 1995 constitution protects these rights in Article 3(f). These protections include private and family life, home, and correspondence (Constitute Project, “Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995 rev. 2009” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Bosnia_Herzegovina_ 2009? lang=en

In its first constitution, Brazil only claimed the inviolability of private letters in Article 179(XXVII) (WikiSource, “Constitution of the Empire of Brazil”). Since then, privacy rights have expanded, and today personal privacy, the home, and correspondence are protected in Article 5(X-XII) (Constitute Project, “Brazil 1988 rev. 2017” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Brazil_ 2017? lang=en https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Empire_of_Brazil

The right to privacy, including family life, private life, honor, dignity, and reputation, is protected in Article 32 of the 1991 constitution (Constitute Project, “Bulgaria 1991 rev. 2015” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Bulgaria_ 2015? lang=en

In the 1962 Constitution of Burundi, Article 12 provides for privacy of the home: "The domicile shall be inviolable. Search may not take place except in the circumstances and form provided by law." Article 20 concerns the status of privacy of correspondence: "The secrecy of correspondence shall be inviolable. Nevertheless, a law shall institute agents authorized to open suspect letters in the mails."

In the 1998 Burundi Constitution, privacy rights are contained in Article 23 and protect privacy, family, home, and correspondence (Constitution Net, “Constitution of Burundi”). Today, they are contained in Article 28 of the 2018 constitution (Constitute Project, “Burundi 2018” ).

English translation of the Constitution of 1962, "Title II: Barundi and their Rights," Constitution of the Kingdom of Burundi : 20-21: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzbi0002&id=3&men_tab=srchresults

https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/transitional_national_constitution_and_transitional_constitution_act_1998-2001_0.pdf

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Burundi_ 2018? lang=en

Two elements of privacy were asserted in the 1972 Cameroon Constitution. The first concerned the home: "the home is inviolate. No search may be conducted except by virtue of the law". The second concerned correspondence: "the privacy of all correspondence is inviolate. No interference may be allowed except by virtue of decisions emanating from the Judicial power".

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=en

Article 33 makes violations of privacy inadmissible in court, while Article 38 grants the right to “personal identity, to civil rights, to a name, honor, and reputation, and to personal and family privacy”. Article 41 extends privacy rights to correspondence, and Article 42 extends it to electronic data privacy (Constitute Project, “Cape Verde 1980 rev. 1992” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Cape_Verde_ 1992? lang=en

Both the 1996 and 2018 Chad Constitutions protect the right to privacy in Article 17 and the right to privacy in communications in Article 45 and 47, respectively (Constitute Project, “Chad").

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Chad_ 2015? lang=en https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Chad_ 2018? lang=en

In 1975, the Chinese Constitution protected the right to privacy to the person and the home in Chapter III, Article 28 (Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, 1975, 39). Today, Articles 38-40 protect privacy in China. Article 38 is for personal dignity, 39 for the home, and 40 for correspondence (Constitute Project, “China (People’s Republic of) 1982 rev. 2018” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/China_ 2018? lang=en https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/article/attachments/peoples-republic-of-china-constitution- 1975. pdf

Today, privacy provisions are in Article 26 and Article 27, which grant privacy in the home and correspondence (Constitute Project, “Comoros 2018” ). Before this constitution, similar clauses were in the 1996 constitutional preamble, drawn from the United Nations Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man (Constitution Net, “CONSTITUTION of the FEDERAL ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF THE COMOROS”).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_ 2018? lang=en http://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/Comoros%20Constitution.pdf

Article 34 of the 1991 constitution protects the home. Article 35 protects personal and familial life, as well as dignity. Article 36 protects correspondence (Constitute Project, “Croatia 1991 rev. 2013” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Croatia_ 2013? lang=en

Article 15 of the 1960 constitution reads: “Every person has the right to respect for his private and family life.” Article 16 expands these protections to the home, as Article 17 expands them to correspondence and communication (Constitute Project, “Cyprus 1960 rev. 2013” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Cyprus_ 2013? lang=en

The personal right to privacy is granted in Article 31 of the 2005 Constitution, while the home is protected under Article 29 (Constitute Project, “Congo (Democratic Republic of the) 2005 rev. 2011” ). Before this, the right to privacy in home and correspondence were granted in the Zaire 1990 constitution (amended from a previous version, though unclear which previous version) in Articles 22 & 23 (World Statesmen, “Complete Text of the Zairian Constitution After the Enactment of Law No. 90-002 of July 5, 1990 Concerning the Modification of Certain Provisions of the Constitution”).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_ 2011? lang=en https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Zaire 1990. pdf

Today, the right to privacy in the home and communications are protected in the 1992 constitution Articles 12 & 13. Personal life is not protected (Constitute Project, “Djibouti 1992 rev. 2010” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Dominica_ 2014? lang=en

Today, Article 44 protects the right to privacy and personal honor. It reads, “All people have the right to privacy. The respect and non-interference into private and family life, the home, and private correspondence are guaranteed. The right to honor, good name, and one’s own image are recognized. All authorities or individuals who violate them are obligated to compensate or repair them in accordance with the law” (Constitute Project, “Dominican Republic 2015” ). The subsections expand on these rights. In previous versions, this was the right to intimacy and personal honor (Constitute Project, “Dominican Republic 2010” ). Previous constitutions could not be found in English.

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Dominican_Republic_ 2015? lang=en https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Dominican_Republic_ 2010? lang=en

Article 11(3) enforces and protects the rights put forth by the constitution and international treaties: “The rights and guarantees set forth in the Constitution and in international human rights instruments shall be directly and immediately enforced by and before any civil, administrative or judicial servant, either by virtue of their office or at the request of the party”. In Chapter 6, Rights to Freedom, Article 66, Sections 11 and 19-22 set out more specific privacy regulations in terms of convictions, correspondence, the home, personal data, and privacy rights (Constitute Project, “Ecuador 2008 rev. 2021) . There are 22 previous Ecuadorian constitutions, but English translations could not be found to investigate the presence of privacy rights.

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Ecuador_ 2021? lang=en

Article 2 of the 1983 constitution explicitly protects the “right to honor, personal and family intimacy, and one’s own image.” Article 6 allows for free communication as long as it does not violate the private lives of others. Article 24 protects correspondence (Constitute Project, “El Salvador 1983 rev. 2014” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/El_Salvador_ 2014? lang=en

In its history, Eritrea has only had one constitution and it protects the right to privacy in Article 18. Specific privacies are not mentioned but it is an overarching declaration of the protection of the right: “Every person shall have the right to privacy” (Constitute Project, “Eritrea 1997” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Eritrea_ 1997? lang=en

Article 14(1) names and protects fundamental rights, and subsection C reads “protection of the privacy of the home and other property rights of the individual” (Constitute Project, “Eswatini 2005” ). Previous iterations of the constitutions from 1967 and 1968 could not be found.

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Swaziland_ 2005? lang=en

Article IV Section 5 of the constitution of 1978 says “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and other possessions against unreasonable search, seizure, or invasion of privacy may not be violated. A warrant may not issue except on probable cause, supported by affidavit particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized” (Constitute Project, “Micronesia (Federated States of) 1978 rev. 1990” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Micronesia_ 1990? lang=en

Originally, the 1919 Finnish Constitution protected privacy in Section 8 (RefWorld, “Constitution Act of Finland”). Today, Section 10 of the Finnish Constitution protects the right to privacy with similar language. It says, “Everyone's private life, honour and the sanctity of the home are guaranteed. More detailed provisions on the protection of personal data are laid down by an Act. The secrecy of correspondence, telephony and other confidential communications is inviolable” (Constitute Project, “Finland 1999 rev. 2011” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Finland_ 2011? lang=en https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b53418.html

Article 1 of the constitution lays out fundamental rights granted within the state (Constitute Project, “Gabon 1991 rev. 2011” ). Section 5 of Article 1 protects the privacy of correspondence. Section 12 claims the inviolability of the domicile. The current constitution is based on the 1961 constitution, though it was rewritten in 1991.

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Gabon_ 2011? lang=en

Article 3, Sections 10-12 of the "Law Concerning the Basic Rights of the German People," from 27 December 1848, asserted some elements of privacy rights. Section 10 defended the inviolability of the home, Section 11 protected papers within the home, and Section 12 defended the secrecy of correspondence outside the context of criminal investigation or war.

Article 117 of the 11 August 1919 Constitution of the German Reich (The Weimar Constitution) guarantees privacy rights: "The secrecy of letters and all postal, telegraphic and telephone communications is inviolable. Exceptions are inadmissable except by Reich law."

Germany Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (The Bonn Constitution), passed in 1949, provides for privacy in a couple of places. Article 1(1) protects an individual’s dignity, and Article 10 protects privacy in correspondence and telecommunications. Article 13 protects the home.

References:

"IV. Fundamental Rights of the German People voted in by the National Assembly in Frankfurt.," IV. Droits Fondementaux du Peuple Allemand votes par l'Assemblee Nationale de Francfort. (1848): 210-211: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzde0172&id=1&collection=cow&index=

The Constitution of the German Reich / August 11, 1919 / Translation of Document 2050-PS / Office of U.S. Chief of Counsel. Courtesy of Cornell University Law Library, Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection. https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/nur01840

Germany Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany: "I: Basic Rights ," The Bonn Constitution; Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (1949): 1-7: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzde0008&id=5&collection=cow&index=

In the 1975 constitution, the Greeks protect the right to privacy in Article 9. This article protects the home, private, and family life. Article 9A provides constitutional data privacy protections (Constitute Project, “Greece 1975 rev. 2008” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Greece_ 2008? lang=en

There are two provisions for privacy protection in the 1985 Guatemalan Constitution. Article 23 grants privacy in the home (vivienda) and Article 24 protects correspondence and other documents (Constitute Project, “Guatemala 1985 rev. 1993” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Guatemala_ 1993? lang=en

Article 44 of the 1984 constitution grants the right to protection of personal and private life. Article 48 grants privacy in the home and correspondence (Constitute Project, “Guinea-Bissau 1984 rev. 1996” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Guinea_Bissau_ 1996? lang=en

In 1801, the first constitution of Haiti protected the privacy of the home in Article 63 (Louverture Project, “Constitution of 1801” ). Today, Article 49 of the 1987 constitution protect protects communications (Constitute Project, “Haiti 1987 rev. 2012” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Haiti_ 2012? lang=en http://thelouvertureproject.org/index.php?title=Haitian_Constitution_of_ 1801_ (English)

The 1949 constitution was the first to include privacy rights. In Article 57, personal privacy, as well as privacy in the home and correspondence are protected: “he Hungarian People's Republic guarantees the personal freedom and privileges of the citizens, and respects the secrecy of correspondence and the inviolability of the home” (Princeton University, “CONSTITUTION of the People's Republic of Hungary - Budapest, 20th August 1949” ). In the most recent constitution from 2011, these rights are protected in Article VI (Constitute Project, “Hungary 2011 rev. 2016” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Hungary_ 2016? lang=en https://lapa.princeton.edu/hosteddocs/hungary/ 1949% 20Hungarian%20constitution.pdf

While not explicitly mentioned in the Indian constitution, the right to privacy has been recognized by the Indian Supreme Court. In 2017, they ruled unanimously that the right to privacy for all people falls under Article 21, which provides the “protection of life and personal liberty” (McCarthy; Mahapatra & Choudhary).

McCarthy, J. ( 2017, Aug. 24). Indian Supreme Court declares privacy a fundamental right. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/ 2017/ 08/24/545963181/indian-supreme-court-declares-privacy-a-fundamental-right Mahapatra, D. & Choudhary, A.A. ( 2017, Aug. 24). Right to privacy is a fundamental right, it is intrinsic to the right to life: Supreme Court. Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/right-to-privacy-is-a-fundamental-right-supreme-court/articleshow/60203394.cms

Some elements of what we would consider the right to privacy were guaranteed in the Supplementary Constitutional Law of 7 October 1907. Article 13 of that document focused on privacy in the home: "The dwelling-place and house of every individual is inviolable. In no dwelling-place can forcible entry be made, except by order of, and in the manner defined by, law." Article 22 discussed correspondence: "Postal communications are inviolable and exempt from seizure or opening, except in cases in which the law makes exception." Article 23 focused on telegraphy: "The publication or seizure of telegraphic communications without the permission of the author of the telegram is forbidden, except in cases in which the law makes exception."

While the constitution of Iran does not protect privacy, it does guarantee protection of the law which conforms with Islamic Law in Article 20 (Constitute Project, “Iran (Islamic Republic of) 1979 rev. 1989” ). Islam provides such protections within the Quran (Hayat, M.H., “Privacy and Islam: From the Quran to data protection in Pakistan”).

References:

Wright, Herbert F. Constitutions of the States at War 1914-1918 . Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/stwar0001&id=499&men_tab=srchresults#

iran Constitution 1979: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Iran_ 1989? lang=en

Muhammad Aslam Hayat (2007) Privacy and Islam: From the Quran to data protection in Pakistan, Information & Communications Technology Law, 16:2, 137-148

Privacy rights in Israel derive from the Basic Law Human Liberty and Dignity of 1992. In this law, Article 7 protects privacy, intimacy, private premises, and confidential communications (Constitute Project, “Israel 1953 rev. 2013” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Israel_ 2013? lang=en

The only specific privacy right mentioned in the constitution is that in Article 8, which inviolably protects the home (Constitute Project, “Côte d'Ivoire 2016” ).

https://constituteproject.org/countries/Africa/Cote_d_Ivoire?lang=en

Article 25 of the 1889 Japan Constitution protected the privacy of the home: "Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent". Article 26 of the 1889 Constitution protected correspondence: "Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolable."

In the 1946 Constitution, Article 35 protects the home, and Article 21 protects communication: "No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated."

References:

1889 Japan Constitution: https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Japan_1889

1946 Japan Constitution: https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html

Article 33 of the 1993 Kazakhstan Constitution reads: "Private life of a citizen shall be inviolable. Intrusion upon private life of a citizen, and also infringement upon his honor and dignity shall be prohibited." Article 34 guarantees the inviolability of the home.

Kazakhstan protected the right to privacy in Article 18 of its 1995 Constitution. It says, “1. Everyone shall have the right to inviolability of private life, personal or family secrets, protection of honor and dignity. 2. Everyone shall have the right to confidentiality of personal deposits and savings, correspondence, telephone conversations, postal, telegraph, and other messages. Limitation of this right shall be permitted only in the cases and according to the procedure directly established by law. 3. State bodies, public associations, officials, and the mass media must provide every citizen with the possibility to obtain access to documents, decisions and other sources of information concerning his rights and interests” (Constitute Project, “Kazakhstan 1995 rev. 2017” ).

References:

"The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan," International Legal Perspectives 5, no. 1 (1993): 114

1995 Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kazakhstan_2017

Article 10 of the 1814 Constitution grants privacy rights to persons in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 10(1) states “Everyone has, save for limitations to be provided by or pursuant to statute, the right to respect for his private life.” Article 13 protects private correspondence and Article 12 protects the home (Hardt & Kiiver, 2019, 141).

Sascha Hardt & Phillip Kiiver. Comparative Constitutional Law Documents. “Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands of 24 August 1815. ”

Kuwait’s 1962 constitution has been reinstated twice, but it does not mention privacy rights generally. It does, however, protect the inviolability of the home in Article 38 (Constitute Project, “Kuwait 1962 reinst. 1992” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Kuwait_ 1992? lang=en

Privacy rights are scarcely protected in Laos. The revised 2015 constitution protects violations of life, body, integrity, and property in Article 42, which has been amended since the implementation of the constitution in 1991 (Constitute Project, “Lao People’s Democratic Republic 1991 rev. 2015” ).

https://media.bloomsburyprofessional.com/rep/files/laos-constitution- 1947- 1949- englishx.pdf https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Laos_ 2015? lang=en

The constitution provides no protections for general privacy rights. However, Article 14 does protect the inviolability of the home (Constitute Project, “Lebanon 1926 rev. 2004” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Lebanon_ 2004? lang=en

The 1825 and 1847 constitutions of Liberia did not included mention of privacy rights. The first protection of privacy rights was in the 1986 constitution, Article 16. Article 16 states “No person shall be subjected to interference with his privacy of person, family, home or correspondence except by order of a court of competent jurisdiction” (Constitute Project, “Liberia 1986” ).

http://crc.gov.lr/doc/CONSTITUTION%20OF%20 1847% 20final.pdf https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Liberia_ 1986? lang=en

The 1862 constitution alludes to privacy rights in the home in Article 12 (Wright, “Constitution of 26 September 1862. ”). Today, privacy rights go further under the 1921 constitution, with Article 32 guaranteeing “Personal liberty, the immunity of the home and the inviolability of letters and written matter” (Constitute Project, “Liechtenstein 1921 rev. 2011” ).

https://books.google.com/books?id=kXBDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA375&lpg=PA375&dq= 1862+ Constitution+of+Liechtenstein+full+text&source=bl&ots=6dAZ5MiCdX&sig=YurO0ujdxMdcKsMLT_DfGdxPCm0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=axZlU-b1KorroATU9oG4Cg#v=onepage&q=priva&f=false https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Liechtenstein_ 2011? lang=en

The 1868 constitution, since amended, protects private life in Article 3. In Article 15, it protects the home and in Article 28, correspondence (Constitute Project, “Luxembourg 1868 rev. 2009” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Luxembourg_ 2009? lang=en

The 1964 Malawi Constitution protects the person from search and the home from entry and search at article 17(1). Article 11(c) promises to the citizen of Malawi "protection for the privacy of his home and other property." Article 20(1) protected against interference with correspondence.

The 1994 Malawi Constitution protects personal privacy in Article 21. As defined in the article, personal privacy protects possessions, home, and property (Constitute Project, “Malawi 1994 rev. 2017” ).

References:

“Constitution of Malawi.” Citizenship Rights Africa. Accessed July 26, 2023. http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Malawi-Constitution-1964.pdf

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malawi_ 2017? lang=en

Articles 9 and 12 of the are relevant to privacy rights. Article 9 protects the private home: "Private premises and dwellings shall be respected. Such premises and dwellings shall not be trespassed, save under conditions stipulated in the law." Article 12 protects communications: "Letters, correspondence, telephone calls, telegrams and wireless messages exchanged between person shall not be opened, intercepted, read or divulged, except in accordance with the express provision in the law."

Article 24 of the 2008 Constitution grants the right to privacy in the Maldives. It says: “Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his private communications. Every person must respect these rights with respect to others” (Constitute Project, “Maldives 2008” ).

References:

1969 Constitution of the Republic of Maldives As Amended to 1975: Peaslee Amos J.; Xydis, Dorothy Peaslee. Constitutions of Nation. The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff.: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/ctituson0002&id=723#

2008 Maldives Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Maldives_2008

Article 32 of the Maltese Constitution protects the right to private and family life. Article 38 protects the home (Constitute Project, “Malta 1964 rev. 2016” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malta_ 2016? lang=en

Article 13(4) protects the right to privacy in Mauritania: “The honor and the private life of the citizen, the inviolability of the human person, of his domicile and of his correspondence are guaranteed by the State” (Constitute Project, "Mauritania 1991 rev. 2012" ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritania_ 2012? lang=en

Article 7 of the 1857 constitution prevents writers from writing about people’s private lives (World History Commons, “Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1857” ). Today, Article 16 of the 1917 constitution protects the privacy rights and data privacy in Mexico: “No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, his/her family, papers, properties or be invaded at home without a written order from a competent authority, duly explaining the legal cause of the proceeding. All people have the right to enjoy protection on his personal data, and to access, correct and cancel such data. All people have the right to oppose the disclosure of his data, according to the law. The law shall establish exceptions to the criteria that rule the handling of data, due to national security reasons, law and order, public security, public health, or protection of third party’s rights” (Constitute Project, “Mexico 1917 rev. 2015” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mexico_ 2015? lang=en https://worldhistorycommons.org/federal-constitution-united-mexican-states- 1857

The 1962 constitution, still in force today, protects the home in Article 21 and the general right to privacy in Article 22. Article 22 calls out private and family life as well as correspondence (Constitute Project, “Monaco 1962 rev 2002” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Monaco_ 2002? lang=en

According to Article 211 of the 1905 Montenegro Constitution: "Epistolary and telegraphic privacy is inviolable except in case of war or judicial inquiry."

Article 20 of the 1992 constitution says, “physical and psychological integrity of man, his privacy and personal rights are inviolable” (Venice Commission, “Constitution of the Republic of Montenegro”). Today, Article 28 says “The inviolability of the physical and mental integrity of a man, and privacy and individual rights thereof shall be guaranteed” (Constitute Project, “Montenegro 2007 rev. 2013” ).

https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL( 2005) 096-e https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Montenegro_ 2013? lang=en 1905 Montenegro Constitution: English translation from the French text of the original Constitution of 1905 "Part 14: The Constitutional Rights of Montenegrin Citizens," Constitution of 6/19 December 1905. (1905): 426-427: https://heinonline-org.mutex.gmu.edu/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzmb0013&id=20&collection=cow&index=

The 1975 constitution of Mozambique granted “All citizens … the right to their honor, good name and reputation, as well as the right to privacy and to defend their public image” (RefWorld, “Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique”). This is echoed in Article 41 of the 2004 constitution (Constitute Project, “Mozambique 2004 rev. 2007” ).

https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b4f40.html https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mozambique_ 2007? lang=en

The 1990 constitution protects the right to privacy in the home and for correspondence in Article 13 (Constitute Project, “Namibia 1990 rev. 2014” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Namibia_ 2014? lang=en

The 1990 constitution was the first to protect privacy as a fundamental right. In Article 22: “Except as provided by law, the privacy of the person, house, property, document, correspondence or information of anyone is inviolable” (Constitution Net, “The Constitution of Nepal 1990” ). In the 2015 constitution, the same language is used in Article 28 (Constitute Project, “Nepal 2015 rev. 2016" ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nepal_ 2016? lang=en https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/ 1990_ constitution_english.pdf

The 1974 constitution “guarantees the inviolability of the home, the dwelling, and of any other private premises of persons” in Article 58 (General Secretariat Organization of American States, Washington D.C., “Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua”). Article 80 protected correspondence. The 1987 constitution broadened privacy rights in Article 26 stating: “Everyone has the right to: 1. Privacy in his/her life and that of his/her family; 2. Respect of his/her honor and reputation; 3. Know about any information which private or public entities may have on record about him/her as well as the right to know why and for what purpose they hold such information; 4. Inviolability of his/her domicile, correspondence and communication of any kind.” (Constitute Project, “Nicaragua 1987 rev. 2014” ).

https://books.google.com/books?printsec=frontcover&vid=LCCN77374018#v=snippet&q=inviolable&f=false https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nicaragua_ 2014? lang=en

In 1960, the country’s first constitution protected the private life, home, and correspondence of each person in Article 22 (World Statesmen, “The Constitution of the Federation of Niger”). Today, the same language is seen in Article 37 of the 1999 constitution (Constitute Project, “Nigeria Constitution 1999 rev. 2011” ).

https://www.worldstatesmen.org/nigeria_const 1960. pdf https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Nigeria_ 2011? lang=en

Article 25 of the 1991 constitution states “Each citizen is guaranteed the respect and protection of the privacy of his/her personal and family life and of his/her dignity and repute.” Amendment XIX, altering Article 17, protects communications more heavily (Constitute Project, “North Macedonia 1991 rev. 2011” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Macedonia_ 2011? lang=en

The Oman constitution, written in 1996, only constitutional protects the privacy of homes in Article 27 (Constitute Project, "Oman 1996 rev. 2011" ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Oman_ 2011? lang=en

Article IV(4) of the 1981 constitution ensures “Every person has the right to be secure in his person, house, papers and effects against entry, search and seizure” (Constitute Project, “Palau 1981 rev. 1992" ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Palau_ 1992? lang=en

Under the basic rights prescribed under Section 5(f), all citizens have the “protection for the privacy of their homes and other property” (Constitute Project, Papua New Guinea 1975 rev. 2016) . Additionally, Article 49(1) gives “Every person has a right to reasonable privacy in respect of his private and family life, his communications with other persons and his personal papers and effects, except to the extent that the exercise of that right is regulated or restricted by law that complies with Section 38 (general qualifications on qualified rights).”

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Papua_New_Guinea_ 2016? lang=en

Article 193 of the 1823 Constitution guaranteed the inviolability of the "security of person and domicile.". The same article asserted the "inviolability of letters."

Article 31 of the 1920 Constitution guaranteed the inviolability of one's home against entry in the absence of a warrant from varying government officials: "The domicile is inviolable and may not be entered without first showing a warrant written by a justice or by the authority charged with preservation of public order. The officers of enforcement of sanitary and municipal ordinances may also enter the domicile. Both the ones and the others are obliged to show the warrant of their authority and to furnish a copy of the same when required to do so." Article 32 guaranteed the inviolability of correspondence.

Today, Article 2(7) protects privacy rights in Peru for one’s honor, reputation, personal and family life, voice, and image (Constitute Project, “Peru 1993 rev. 2021” ). Similar rights appear to have been listed in Article 2 of the 1979 constitution, but an English translation could not be found.

LEGUIA, A. B. “CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF PERU.” The Southwestern Political Science Quarterly 2, no. 1 (1921): 108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42883893.

http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Peru-Constitucion%20 1979. pdf

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Peru_ 2021? lang=en

Peru 1823 Constitution, from British and Foreign State Papers (1822-1823): https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0010&id=738&men_tab=srchresults#

The 1921 Polish Constitution grants privacy in the home and communication in articles 100 and 106, respectively (Sejm Parliamentary Library, “Constitution of the Republic of Poland, March 17, 1921” ). Today, Article 47 of the 1997 constitution protects the general right to privacy in Poland: “Everyone shall have the right to legal protection of his private and family life, of his honour and good reputation and to make decisions about his personal life.” Articles 49 and 50 extend these protections to communications and the home (Constitute Project, “Poland 1997 rev. 2009” ).

http://libr.sejm.gov.pl/tek01/txt/kpol/e 1921. html https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_ 2009? lang=en

From 1972- 2003, Qatar was ruled by a temporary constitution. In this document Article 12 granted the sanctity of dwellings (Al Meezan, “The Amended Provisional Constitution of 1972” ). Today, Article 37 of the Constitution claims “The sanctity of human privacy shall be inviolable, and therefore interference into privacy of a person, family affairs, home of residence, correspondence, or any other act of interference that may demean or defame a person may not be allowed save as limited by the provisions of the law stipulated therein” (Qatar Government Communications Office, “The Constitution”).

https://www.gco.gov.qa/en/about-qatar/the-constitution/ https://www.almeezan.qa/LawView.aspx?opt&LawID=4360&language=en#Section_14176

The only mention of privacy rights today is that of the home in Article 20 of the 2015 Constitution (Constitute Project, “Congo (Republic of the) 2015” ). The same right appeared in the 2001 Constitution in Article 14 (Constitute Project, “Congo (Republic of the) 2001” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Congo_ 2015? lang=en https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Congo_ 2001? lang=en

In 1906, the Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire were the first to grant Russians “sanctity of the home and property.” This was the first time Russians were granted civil liberties (Boris Yeltsin Presidential Library, “‘Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire’ Approved”).

https://www.prlib.ru/en/history/619222

Chapter II, Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, of the 1983 constitution entitles everyone to fundamental rights, including “protection for his personal privacy, the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation” (Constitute Project, “Saint Kitts and Nevis 1983” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/St_Kitts_and_Nevis_ 1983? lang=en

In the preamble of their only constitution to date, Vincentians are promised safeguards to “the rights of privacy of family life, of property, and the fostering of the pursuit of just economic rewards for labor.” This is reaffirmed in Article 1 with the granting of fundamental rights and freedoms (Constitute Project, “Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1979” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/St_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines_ 1979? lang=en

The 1974 Declaration of Citizens' Rights and of the fundamental principles of the San Marinese legal order is the first time privacy rights are alluded to in San Marino. Art. 6 grants civil and political liberties. It does not grant privacy except in communications.

https://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/constitutions/country/6/San%20Marino/show

Senegal does not explicitly protect the right to privacy in its constitution. Article 7 of the 2001 constitution makes the claim to protect human rights but does not call out privacy. Article 13 provides for private correspondence and Article 16 makes the domicile inviolable (Constitute Project, “Senegal 2001 rev. 2016” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Senegal_ 2016? lang=en

The 1976 Independence Constitution of Seychelles, under Chapter 3, Article 12(c) gives individuals privacy of their home and other property (Citizenship Rights in Africa Initiative, “Constitution of Seychelles, 1976” ).

https://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/constitution-of-seychelles- 1976/

No part of the constitution mentions a right to privacy (Privacy International, “The Right to Privacy in Singapore”). There are also no specific laws governing privacy within the state.

https://privacyinternational.org/sites/default/files/ 2017- 12/Singapore_UPR_PI_submission_FINAL.pdf

Articles 35 and 36 of the constitution speak to the right to privacy in Slovenia. Article 35 says “The inviolability of the physical and mental integrity of every person, his privacy and personality rights shall be guaranteed” (Constitute Project, “Slovenia 1991 rev. 2016” ). Article 36 says “Dwellings are inviolable. No one may, without a court order, enter the dwelling or other premises of another person, nor may he search the same, against the will of the resident. Any person whose dwelling or other premises are searched has the right to be present or to have a representative present. Such a search may only be conducted in the presence of two witnesses. Subject to conditions provided by law, an official may enter the dwelling or other premises of another person without a court order, and may in exceptional circumstances conduct a search in the absence of witnesses, where this is absolutely necessary for the direct apprehension of a person who has committed a criminal offence or to protect people or property” (Constitute Project, “Slovenia 1991 rev. 2016” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Slovenia_ 2016? lang=en

Article 28 of the 1960 Constitution of Somalia grants “respect for the private home” in which "no home or private property of any one (sic) may be entered into or violated, save in the cases mentioned in Paragraphs 2, 3 and 5 of Article 25” (World Intellectual Property Organization, “The Constitution”).

https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/so/so002en.pdf

Under the first constitution of the Republic of Korea in 1948, Articles 17 and 18 grant the right to privacy. Neither the privacy of a citizen nor communication may be infringed (Constitute Project, “Korea (Republic of) 1948 rev. 1987” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Republic_of_Korea_ 1987? lang=en

The 1978 Spanish Constitution was the first to present privacy rights in Spain. Section 19(1) protects “the right to honour, to personal and family privacy and to the own image,” while 19(2) protects the home, and 19(4) explicitly grants data privacy (Constitute Project, “Spain 1978 rev. 2011” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_ 2011? lang=en

Privacy rights first appear in the 1973 Sudanese Constitution. Article 42 states “the private life of citizens is inviolable. The state shall guarantee the freedom and secrecy of postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communications in accordance with the law.” Article 43 protects dwellings in the same manner (The Democratic Republic of Sudan Gazette, “The Permanent Constitution of Sudan”). Today, these protections are combined into Article 55 of the 2019 Constitution, in which “No one’s privacy may be violated. It is not permissible to interfere in the private or family life of any person in his home or correspondence, except in accordance with the law” (Constitute Project, "Sudan 2019" ).

https://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/ 01/Constitution-Sudan- 1973- +-amendment- 1975. pdf https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Sudan_ 2019? lang=en

Constitutionally, privacy rights were introduced with the 1974 Swedish Constitution. Articles 2 and 6 present the right to privacy, while Article 20 allows the provisions in Article 6 to have some limitations (Constitute Project, “Sweden’s Constitution of 1974 with Amendments through 2012” ). Sweden was also the first to introduce data privacy rights with the Data Act in 1973 (GDPRHub, “Data Protection in Sweden”).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sweden_ 2012. pdf?lang=en https://gdprhub.eu/Data_Protection_in_Sweden

The right to privacy was limited in the 1973 constitution, preventing only the private seizure of private property without judicial ruling (Carnegie Middle East Center, “The Syrian Constitution – 1973- 2012” ). Today, Articles 36 and 37 of the 2012 Constitution protect privacy rights. Article 36 protects private life and Article 37 protects communications (Constitute Project, “Syrian Arab Republic 2012” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Syria_ 2012? lang=en https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/50255?lang=en

Articles 22 and 23 of the 1994 Tajikistan constitution protect the right to privacy. Article 22 makes the home inviolable, and Article 23 forbids “The collection, storage, use, and dissemination of information about private life of a person without his consent” (Constitute Project, “Tajikistan 1994 rev. 2016” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_ 2016? lang=en

The earliest mention of privacy is the 1997 constitution of Thailand. While they have had many constitutions since 1932, the earliest translation found was that of the 1997 text. Section 34 protects “A person’s family rights, dignity, reputation or the right of privacy” unless it is beneficial to the public (Ref World, “Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand”).

https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6b5b2b.pdf

Article 23 of the 1996 constitution says, “No person shall be subject to interference with the privacy of his or her home, correspondence or communications save as is in accordance with law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety of the economic well-being of the country, for the protection of health or morals, for the prevention of disorder or crime or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others” (Constitute Project, “Gambia (The) 1996 rev. 2018” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Gambia_ 2018? lang=en

The Tonga constitution was written in 1875. Under Article 16, privacy is granted during searches, except for lawfully granted searches through a warrant (Constitute Project, “Tonga’s Constitution of 1875 with Amendments through 2013” ).

https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Tonga_ 2013. pdf?lang=en

In 1959, the constitution granted the right to privacy in Article 9. At some point between then and 2008, this article was amended to protect personal data, reflecting the changes in privacy rights with new technologies (Constitute Project, “Tunisia 1959 rev. 2008" ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_ 2008? lang=en

The 1992 Constitution protects against arbitrary interference of privacy in Article 25 (International Committee on the Red Cross, “Constitution 1992, as of 2008” ).

Today, Article 37 of the 2008 constitution grants “the right to private liberty, personal and family secrets and their protection from arbitrary interference in their privacy” while Article 38 prevents the “Collection, storage and dissemination of information about private life of an individual” without consent (Constitute Project, “Turkmenistan's Constitution of 2008 with Amendments through 2016” ).

https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl-nat.nsf/0/D9E58AFB0C84 1166C 1256F FD0034016C https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_ 2016. pdf?lang=en

Article 17(c) of the 1962 constitution provides privacy rights protections in Uganda (World Statesmen, “Uganda Constitutional Instruments”). It protects “the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation” as a fundamental right. Today, the 1995 Constitution grants these protections in Article 27 (Constitute Project, “Uganda’s Constitution of 1995 with Amendments through 2017" ).

https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Uganda-const- 1962. pdf https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uganda_ 2017. pdf?lang=en

The 1971 constitution protects privacy in communications in Articles 31 and Article 36 protects one’s home (Constitute Project, “United Arab Emirates 1971, rev. 2009" ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Arab_Emirates_ 2009? lang=en

The first mention of this right is ‘’The Right to Privacy’’ written by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis and published in the Harvard Law Review in 1890. Constitutionally, it was first found in the 1965 Supreme Court case ‘’Griswold v. Connecticut’’ (Privacy, n.d.).

Privacy. (n.d.). Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute. Retrieved Sept. 8, 2021, from https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/privacy Warren, S. & Brandeis, L. ( 1890, Dec. 15). The right to privacy. Harvard Law Review 4(5), 193-220. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0017-811X%281890 1215% 294%3A5%3C193%3ATRTP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C

Article 27 of the 1992 Constitution protects privacy and the inviolability of the home, requiring a prescription by law to allow a search of the home (Constitute Project, “Uzbekistan's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uzbekistan_ 2011. pdf?lang=en

The 1811 "Declaration of Rights, by the Supreme Congress of Venezuela," at Article 24 under the "Rights of Man in Society" section, states: "The house of every Citizen is an inviolable asylum No one has a right to enter it violently, unless in the cases of conflagration, or deluge, or of an application proceeding from the house itself; or for objects of criminal proceedings, in the cases and with the formalities determined by Law, and under the responsibility of the constituted Authorities who have issued the Decree."

Today, privacy is strictly protected in Venezuela, going beyond the call of the ICCPR’s call in Article 17 under constitutional Articles 48 and 60 (Privacy International, “The Right to Privacy in Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of): Stakeholder Report.

References:

English translation of the Spanish original text of the Declaration of Rights of 1811. 1105 (2011) Rights of Man in Society: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzve0002&id=2&men_tab=srchresults

https://hrp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/venezuela_upr2016.pdf

There are no explicit protections of privacy in Yemen, though Article 20 does not allow for private confiscation without legal judgment (Constitute Project, “Yemen 1991: Rev. 2015” ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_ 2015? lang=en https://giswatch.org/en/country-report/communications-surveillance/yemen

The 2013 Zimbabwe Constitution grants “[e]very person has the right to privacy, which includes the right not to have: (a) their home, premises or property entered without their permission; (b) their person, home, premises or property searched; (c) their possessions seized; (d) the privacy of their communications infringed; or (e) their health condition disclosed” in Section 57 (Privacy International, “The Right to Privacy in Zimbabwe: Stakeholder Report, Universal Periodic Review,” 4). Before this, the 2007 Interception of Communications Act allowed for public information to be intercepted by authorities, something that has not been rectified since the implementation of the new constitution.

https://hrp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/ 2016/ 04/zimbabwe_upr 2016. pdf

Article 28 of the 1928 Fundamental Statute of the Kingdom of Albania asserted that Deputies serving in Parliament should be "elected by the people according to law", without offering further specific details about the right to vote.

Article 45 of the Republic of Albania’s 1998 Constitution guarantees the right to vote to the People of Albania so they can exercise their power through their elected representatives in the Parliament (Berhani, I. "Elections and Implementation of the Law of Elections in Albania").

References:

1928 Fundamental Statute of the Kingdom of Albania: https://www.hoelseth.com/royalty/albania/albconst19281201.html

Albania Constitution (1998): https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Albania_2016?lang=en.

Berhani, Ilir, "Elections and Implementation of the Law of Elections in Albania." (2015). Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2 S5), 155: https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/6173/5918

Article 24 of the 1993 Constitution states that all citizens of age and in full use of their rights are guaranteed suffrage (Constitute Project, "Andorra 1993" ).

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Andorra_1993?lang=en.

Universal suffrage was introduced in Antigua and Barbuda in 1951 (National Encyclopedia, "Antigua and Barbuda- Politics, government, and taxation"). Antigua and Barbuda’s 1981 Constitution contains the first assertion of the right to vote in the country’s independent history. Section 40 specifically outlines this right.

References:

The 1981 Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1981/1106/pdfs/uksi_19811106_en.pdf

National Encyclopedia: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Antigua-and-Barbuda-POLITICS-GOVERNMENT-AND-TAXATION.html#google_vignette

Article 1 of the 1995 Constitution of Armenia states that Armenia is a "sovereign, democratic state." Article 2 states: "The people exercise their power through free elections and referenda, as well as through state and local self-governing bodies and public officials as provided by the Constitution." Article 27 of the 1995 Constitution states: "Citizens of the Republic of Armenia who have attained the age of eighteen years are entitled to participate in the government of the state directly or through their freely elected representatives. Citizens found to be incompetent by a court ruling, or duly convicted of a crime and serving a sentence may not vote or be elected."

References:

"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng

In Austria, universal suffrage for men was introduced by the Voting Rights Act of 1907 and the country was one of the first in Europe to introduce women’s suffrage in 1918 (Metropole, “Your Right to Vote in Austria”).

References:

https://metropole.at/vienna-legal-right-voting/

According to Article one of the 1973 Constitution, "The citizens shall have the right to participate in the public affairs of the State and enjoy political rights, beginning with the right to vote, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and procedures set forth in the law." This right is also found in Chapter I, Article 1 of the 2002 Constitution: "Citizens, both men and women, are entitled to participate in public affairs and may enjoy political rights, including the right to vote and to stand for elections, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and principles laid down by law." Elections choose members of the lower house of Parliament. According to the US Department of State's Bahrain 2022 Human Rights Report, "The parliament comprises an upper house appointed by the king, the Shura (Consultative) Council, and an elected Council of Representatives, each with 40 seats. Parliament can propose laws but does not draft legislation."

References:

https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ba01000_.html

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Bahrain_2017?lang=en.

https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/415610_BAHRAIN-2022-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf

In 1950 universal adult suffrage was introduced in Barbados for all of 21 years of age and over. In 1963 the right to vote was extended to those having reached the age of 18 years old.

References:

History of the form of Government in Barbados: https://www.electoral.barbados.gov.bb/25104-2/

Articles 3-5 of the 1959 Constitution of Upper Volta discussed voting rights. Article 3 stated that "The Republic of Upper Volta is democratic. Its principle is: government of the people, by the people and for the people." Article 4 asserted the location of sovereignty in the people as a whole: "Sovereignty belongs to the people. No section of the people, nor any individual may arrogate its exercise." Article 5 treated the universality of suffrage: "The people exercise their sovereignty by their representatives. Suffrage is universal, equal and secret. All citizens, of both sexes, of majority, enjoying their civil and political rights, are electors."

Under Article 33 of Title II in the 1991 Constitution of Burkina Faso, as revised in 2015, suffrage is direct or indirect and is universal, equal and secret (Constitute Project, “Burkina Faso's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015” ).

References:

English Translation of the French Official Original Text of the Constitution of 1959 3-4 (2021) Title I: Of the State and of Sovereignty: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzbf0033&id=3&collection=cow&index=

1991 Constitution of Burkina Faso 1991 as revised in 2015: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Burkina_Faso_2015

Article 48 of the 1947 Cambodia Constitution stated: "Any Cambodian citizen, who is fully twenty years old is an elector, provided that he is not deprived of his civil rights and that he fulfils the conditions determined by the Electoral Law. Soldiers and officers on the active list can neither be electors nor eligible. It is the same for the monks on account of the Buddhistic dogmas."

Khmer citizens 18 years or older are granted the right to vote through universal suffrage under Article 34 of the 1993 Constitution (Constitute Project, “Cambodia's Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2008” ).

English translation of the Constitution of 1947. "Title No. 5: The National Assembly," Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia : 353: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzkh0002&id=2&men_tab=srchresults

https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cambodia_2008?lang=en.