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V
According to Article 20 of the 1975 Constitution, "All citizens over the age of eighteen, other than those legally deprived of political rights, have the right and the duty to take an active part in public life, to vote and to be elected or appointed to any State organ, and to discharge their mandate with complete dedication to the cause of the Fatherland and the Angolan people." However, according to Britannica.com: "The constitution of 1975 established a one-party state headed by a president who was also chairman of the MPLA, which declared itself a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party in 1977."
Article 28 of the 1992 Constitution offered a revised characterization of the right to vote: "It shall be the right and duty of all citizens aged over 18, other than those legally deprived of political and civil rights, to take an active part in public life, to vote and stand for election to any State body, and to fulfill their offices with full dedication to the cause of the Angolan nation."
Article 54 of the 2010 Angola Constitution uses similar language: "1. Every citizen who has attained the age of eighteen years shall have the right to vote and stand for election for any state or local authority body and to serve their terms of office or mandates, under the terms of the Constitution and the law. 2. The right to vote may not be restricted except with regard to the incapacities and ineligibilities prescribed in the Constitution. 3. The exercise of the right to vote shall be personal and non-transferable and shall be a civic duty."
References:
1975 Angola Constitution: “The Constitution of the People’s Republic of Angola.” World Constitutions Illustrated, Heinonline. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/rsl2&i=197
1992 Angola Constitution: https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/Angola%20Constitution.pdf
2010 Angola Constitution: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Angola_2010
https://www.britannica.com/place/Angola/Government-and-society
Universal suffrage was introduced in Antigua and Barbuda in [[Probable year:: 1951]] (National Encyclopedia, "Antigua and Barbuda- Politics, government, and taxation"). Antigua and Barbuda’s 1981 Constitution contains the first assertion of the right to vote in the country’s independent history. Section 40 specifically outlines this right.
References:
The 1981 Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1981/1106/pdfs/uksi_19811106_en.pdf
National Encyclopedia: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Antigua-and-Barbuda-POLITICS-GOVERNMENT-AND-TAXATION.html#google_vignette +
Men received the right to vote in 1912: "In 1912, the Sáenz Peña law, named for the president at the time, guaranteed universal male suffrage, paving the way for the Radical Party under the leadership of Hipólito Yrigoyen to take power." (Hammond, 66) Women received the right to vote nationwide in Argentina in 1947: "The ratification of the suffrage law in 1947 represented a significant milestone for the feminist movement and a major victory for Perón’s administration." (Hammond, 172)
In [[Probable year:: 1983]], Argentina returned to democracy after almost eight years of authoritarian rule. In April [[Probable year:: 1994]] elections were held to form a Constituent Assembly because of the provisions made to the [[Probable year:: 1853]] Constitution. Under the new Constitution the president is directly elected for a four-year term by universal adult suffrage (ACE Project, “Electoral Systems- Argentina").
References:
Hammond, Gregory. Women's Suffrage Movement and Feminism in Argentina from Roca to Peron, University of New Mexico Press, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/gwu/detail.action?docID=3039417.
https://aceproject.org/main/english/es/esy_ar.htm +
Article 1 of the 1995 Constitution of Armenia states that Armenia is a "sovereign, democratic state." Article 2 states: "The people exercise their power through free elections and referenda, as well as through state and local self-governing bodies and public officials as provided by the Constitution." Article 27 of the 1995 Constitution states: "Citizens of the Republic of Armenia who have attained the age of eighteen years are entitled to participate in the government of the state directly or through their freely elected representatives. Citizens found to be incompetent by a court ruling, or duly convicted of a crime and serving a sentence may not vote or be elected."
References:
"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng +
Differing groups in Australia have come to enjoy the right to vote in varying periods in the country's history. According to the Museum of Australian Democracy: "At the colony or state level, women won voting rights over a period of two decades. The first colony to grant women the vote was South Australia in 1893, while the last was Victoria in 1908. Women have been able to vote in federal elections since 1903, due to the Franchise Act of 1902." According to the National Museum of Australia, "From the first federal electoral Act in 1902 to 1965, when the last state changed its law, tens of thousands of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were subject to regulations which prohibited them from voting at federal and state elections. It wasn’t until 1984 that Indigenous people were finally treated like other voters and required to enrol and vote at elections."
References:
"Indigenous Australians’ right to vote": https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/indigenous-australians-right-to-vote
Museum of Australian Democracy, "Elections and voting in Australia": http://static.moadoph.gov.au/ophgovau/media/images/apmc/docs/62-Elections.pdf?ref=hir.harvard.edu +
In Austria, universal suffrage for men was introduced by the Voting Rights Act of [[Probable year:: 1907]] and the country was one of the first in Europe to introduce women’s suffrage in [[Probable year:: 1918]] (Metropole, “Your Right to Vote in Austria”).
References:
https://metropole.at/vienna-legal-right-voting/ +
Article 56 of the 1995 Constitution of Azerbaijan established the right to vote for citizens.
References:
“Azerbaijan 1995 (rev. 2016).” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Azerbaijan_2016
Blaustein, Albert P., and Gisbert H. Flanz. Constitutions of the Countries of the World; a Series of Updated Texts, Constitutional Chronologies and Annotated Bibliographies. "Azerbaijan Republic, Booklet 2, 1996" Permanent ed. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y: Oceana Publications, 1971. +
According to Article one of the 1973 Constitution, "The citizens shall have the right to participate in the public affairs of the State and enjoy political rights, beginning with the right to vote, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and procedures set forth in the law." This right is also found in Chapter I, Article 1 of the [[Probable year:: 2002]] Bahrain Constitution with amendments through 2017: "Citizens, both men and women, are entitled to participate in public affairs and may enjoy political rights, including the right to vote and to stand for elections, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and principles laid down by law." Elections choose members of the lower house of Parliament. According to the US Department of State Bahrain 2022 Human Rights Report, "The parliament comprises an upper house appointed by the king, the Shura (Consultative) Council, and an elected Council of Representatives, each with 40 seats. Parliament can propose laws but does not draft legislation."
References:
“Bahrain Old Constitution (1973).” International Constitutional Law Project: https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ba01000_.html
Bahrain 2002 (Rev. 2017) Constitution.” Constitute: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Bahrain_2017?lang=en.
US Department of State Bahrain 2022 Human Rights Report: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/415610_BAHRAIN-2022-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf +
Article 122 of the 1972 Bangladesh Constitution describes the following qualifications for voters:
"(1) The elections to Parliament shall be on the basis of adult franchise. (2) A person shall be entitled to be enrolled on the electoral roll for a constituency delimited the purpose of election to Parliament, if he-
(a) is a citizen of Bangladesh; (b) is not less than eighteen years of age; c) does not stand declared by a competent court to be of unsound mind; and (d) is or is deemed by law to be a resident of that constituency."
References:
http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/bangladesh-constitution.pdf +
In 1950 universal adult suffrage was introduced in Barbados for all of 21 years of age and over. In 1963 the right to vote was extended to those having reached the age of 18 years old.
References:
History of the form of Government in Barbados: https://www.electoral.barbados.gov.bb/25104-2/ +
Article 38 of the [[Probable year:: 1994]] Constitution of the Republic of Belarus states that citizens have the right to vote.
References:
1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzby0006&id=4&men_tab=srchresults
1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus as amended in 1996: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e +
Belgian citizens are automatically registered on the electoral rolls when reaching the age of 18 and are subject to compulsory voting under Article 62 of the Belgian Constitution (Legislationline, “The Belgian Constitution”). Universal suffrage rights date to 1948, when women were granted the right to vote. The minimum age to vote was lowered to 18 years in 1981. (The Belgian Senate, "Parliamentary Election")
References:
Legislation Online, "The Belgian Constitution": https://legislationline.org/sites/default/files/documents/98/BELG_Constitution.pdf
The Belgian Senate, "Parliamentary Election": https://www.senate.be/english/LegElectionsEN.html +
According to section 92 of the 1981 Constitution, "At any general election-every citizen of Belize or a citizen of any Commonwealth Country who has attained the age of eighteen years and who satisfies the requirements of the Representation of the People Act shall have the right to vote;"
According to Freedom House, "The 31 members of the House of Representatives are directly elected to five-year terms. The Senate has 12 seats. The ruling party, the opposition, and several civil associations select the senators, who are then appointed by the governor general." (Freedom House, “Belize”).
References:
1981 Constitution of Belize: https://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Belize/belize81.html
Freedom House, "Belize": https://freedomhouse.org/country/belize/freedom-world/2023 +
Article 3 of the 15 February 1959 Constitution of the Republic of Dahomey asserted universal, secret, and equal suffrage.
Currently, the president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote, and is eligible for two terms. National Assembly Delegates are elected to four-year terms. (Freedom House, “Benin”).
References:
"Of the State and of Sovereignty," Republique du Dahomey, Constitution du 15 fevrier 1959 (1959): 57-57
Freedom House, "Freedom in the World, 2023: Benin": https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2023 +
Often called the father of Utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham posited the foundational form of the philosophy, which had a focus on the quantity of pleasures that would result from an action. In practice, this would qualify an act as “ethical” if it brought pleasure to a relatively large number of people. Individuals obtain pleasure in the context of suffrage when they are able to freely exercise their right to vote, and even more so when their favored candidate wins. Theoretically, the more people that are able to cast a vote, the more people can access the pleasures associated with suffrage. Following this logic, a Utilitarian such as Bentham would be expected to support widespread voting rights and robust legal protections for them. Speaking on the right of the public to criticize government officials, Bentham writes:
Every man is at liberty to express as well by visible as by audible signs, and in any way and to any extent to make public, whatsoever in his judgment it will be contributory to the greatest happiness of the greatest number to be informed of: and this although disapprobation be thereby expressed towards persons in authority, or any of them, whether on account of the general tenor of their conduct, or on account of their conduct on this or that occasion in particular (Bentham 1838, p.584).
Government accountability and public scrutiny are recurring themes in Bentham’s writing. In discussing the role of citizens, he writes: “Operating thus as judges, the members of this same community may, in their aggregate capacity, be considered as constituting a sort of judicatory or tribunal” (Ibid., p.561). Voting rights make this public tribunal effective by giving citizens the power to make officials responsive to their needs. Bentham elaborates on the makeup of this electorate in saying: “Taken in its utmost latitude, this tribunal would include all of them without exception. But, of no question, on any occasion, can any such multitude, in such their capacity, by physical possibility, actually take cognizance. Those less than a certain age, and the infirm, for example, not to mention any other classes, cannot but be excepted” (Ibid., p.561). Bentham expresses no desire to restrict political participation to a certain class of citizens based on gender or race. Instead, he simply weighs the practical considerations of who can and cannot vote based on age and physical or mental capacity. Bentham’s writing seems to indicate his support for universal suffrage with some clarity.
References:
Bentham, Jeremy. 1838. The Works of Jeremy Bentham. Edited by John Bowring. Vol. 8. 11 vols. Edinburgh: William Tait.
Article 23(2) of the 2008 Bhutan Constitution discusses the right to vote: "A person shall have the right to vote by direct adult suffrage through secret ballot at an election if the person is: (a) A Bhutanese citizen as evidenced by a Citizenship
Card: (b) Not less than eighteen years of age: (c) Registered in the civil registry of that constituency for not less than one year, prior to the date of the election; and (d) Not otherwise disqualified from voting under any law in force in Bhutan.
References:
2008 Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan: "Article 23: Elections," Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan, 2008 : 46-47: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page
collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzbt0002&id=55&men_tab=srchresults +
Section 2 Article 26 of the Constitution grants the right for universal suffrage for all people (Constitute Project, “Bolivia’'s Constitution of [[Probable year:: 2009]]” ). According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the right to vote was extended to women in 1952.
References:
“Bolivia (Plurinational Republic of) 2009.” Constitute. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Bolivia_2009
Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Women's Suffrage": http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm +
In accordance with Article II 1, Article IV 1.2 and 4.a and the Article V 1.a of the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Article V of the Annex 3 of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Election Law Of Bosnia And Herzegovina was developed in [[Probable year:: 2001]] to promote free and fair elections (Legislationline, “Election Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina”). According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the right to vote was extended to women in 1949, when Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of Yugoslavia.
References:
Legislationline, “Election Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina”: https://legislationline.org/sites/default/files/documents/e8/Bosnia_Herzegovina_election_law_2001_am2016_en.pdf
Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Women's Suffrage": http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm +
Article 67 of the 1966 Constitution of Botswana described the right to vote, which was granted to citizens of at least 21 years of age meeting residency requirements. An amendment in 1997 lowered the minimum age of voters to 18 years old.
References:
English text of the Constitution of 1966 as amended to Act No. 1 of 1983 [52] (2016) Chapter V: Parliament
https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzbw0006&id=52&men_tab=srchresults
The Constitution {Amendment) Act, 1997: https://botswanalaws.com/StatutesActpdf/CONSTITUTION%20(AMENDMENT)%20ACT,%2018%20OF%201997.pdf +
Women received the right to vote in Brazil in 1932. According to Brazil's Superior Electoral Court, "With the enactment of Decree No. 21,076 (first electoral code in Brazil), the Electoral Court and its structure was created, with a Superior Court and Regional Courts in each state. Among the code's important innovations, women’s right to vote and to be elected stands out – expressed in a legal provision for the first time. In addition, the decree instituted the 5th model of electoral title, secret ballot, and proportional representation."
References:
Superior Electoral Court, "History of the Electoral Justice System": https://international.tse.jus.br/en/superior-electoral-court/history-of-the-electoral-jujstice-system +